Taking stock of the occupational safety and health challenges of nanotechnology: 2000-2015.

Engineered nanomaterials significantly entered commerce at the beginning of the 21st century. Concerns about serious potential health effects of nanomaterials were widespread. Now, approximately 15 years later, it is worthwhile to take stock of research and efforts to protect nanomaterial workers from potential risks of adverse health effects. This article provides and examines timelines for major functional areas (toxicology, metrology, exposure assessment, engineering controls and personal protective equipment, risk assessment, risk management, medical surveillance, and epidemiology) to identify significant contributions to worker safety and health. The occupational safety and health field has responded effectively to identify gaps in knowledge and practice, but further research is warranted and is described. There is now a greater, if imperfect, understanding of the mechanisms underlying nanoparticle toxicology, hazards to workers, and appropriate controls for nanomaterials, but unified analytical standards and exposure characterization methods are still lacking. The development of control-banding and similar strategies has compensated for incomplete data on exposure and risk, but it is unknown how widely such approaches are being adopted. Although the importance of epidemiologic studies and medical surveillance is recognized, implementation has been slowed by logistical issues. Responsible development of nanotechnology requires protection of workers at all stages of the technological life cycle. In each of the functional areas assessed, progress has been made, but more is required.

Characterization of phagolysosomal simulant fluid for study of beryllium aerosol particle dissolution.

A simulant of phagolysosomal fluid is needed for beryllium particle dissolution research because intraphagolysosomal dissolution is believed to be a necessary step in the cellular immune response associated with development of chronic beryllium disease. Thus, we refined and characterized a potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP) buffered solution with pH 4.55, termed phagolysosomal simulant fluid (PSF), for use in a static dissolution technique. To characterize the simulant, beryllium dissolution in PSF was compared to dissolution in the J774A.1 murine cell line. The effects of ionic composition, buffer strength, and the presence of the antifungal agent alkylbenzyldimethylammonium chloride (ABDC) on beryllium dissolution in PSF were evaluated. Beryllium dissolution in PSF was not different from dissolution in the J774A.1 murine cell line (p = 0.78) or from dissolution in another simulant having the same pH but different ionic composition (p = 0.73). A buffer concentration of 0.01-M KHP did not appear adequate to maintain pH under all conditions. There was no difference between dissolution in PSF with 0.01-M KHP and 0.02-M KHP (p = 0.12). At 0.04-M KHP, beryllium dissolution was increased relative to 0.02-M KHP (p = 0.02). Use of a 0.02-M KHP buffer concentration in the standard formulation for PSF provided stability in pH without alteration of the dissolution rate. The presence of ABDC did not influence beryllium dissolution in PSF (p = 0.35). PSF appears to be a useful and appropriate model of in vitro beryllium dissolution when using a static dissolution technique. In addition, the critical approach used to evaluate and adjust the composition of PSF may serve as a framework for characterizing PSF to study dissolution of other metal and oxide particles.

Relative efficacy of long-acting stimulants on children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: a comparison of standard methylphenidate, sustained-release methylphenidate, sustained-release dextroamphetamine, and pemoline.

Twenty-two children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder underwent a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover evaluation of the efficacy of standard methylphenidate twice a day and comparable doses every morning of a sustained-release preparation of methylphenidate (SR-20 Ritalin), a sustained-release form of dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine Spansule), and pemoline. The children were participating in a summer treatment program in which they engaged in recreational and classroom activities. Dependent measures include evaluations of social behavior during group recreational activities, classroom performance, and performance on a continuous performance task. Results revealed generally equivalent and beneficial effects of all four medications. Dexedrine Spansule and pemoline tended to produce the most consistent effects and were recommended for 10 of the 15 children who were responders to medication. The continuous performance task results showed that all four medications had an effect within 2 hours of ingestion, and the effects lasted for 9 hours. The implications of these results for the use of long-acting stimulant medication in children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder are discussed.

Animal models of beryllium-induced lung disease.

The inhalation Toxicology Research Institute (ITRI) is conducting research to improve the understanding of chronic beryllium disease (CBD) and beryllium-induced lung cancer. Initial animal studies examined beagle dogs that inhaled BeO calcined at either 500 or 1000 degrees C. At similar lung burdens, the 500 degrees C BeO induced more severe and extensive granulomatous pneumonia, lymphocytic infiltration into the lung, and positive Be-specific lymphocyte proliferative responses in vitro than the 1000 degrees C BeO. However, the progressive nature of human CBD was not duplicated. More recently, Strains A/J and C3H/Hej mice were exposed to Be metal by inhalation. This produced a marked granulomatous pneumonia, diffuse infiltrates, and multifocal aggregates of interstitial lymphocytes with a pronounced T helper component and pulmonary in situ lymphocyte proliferation. With respect to lung cancer, at a mean lung burden as low as 17 micrograms Be/g lung, inhaled Be metal induced benign and/or malignant lung tumors in over 50% of male and female F344 rats surviving > or = 1 year on study. Substantial tumor multiplicity was found, but K-ras and p53 gene mutations were virtually absent. In mice, however, a lung burden of approximately 60 micrograms (-300 micrograms Be/g lung) caused only a slight increase in crude lung tumor incidence and multiplicity over controls in strain A/J mice and no elevated incidence in strain C3H mice. Taken together, this research program constitutes a coordinated effort to understand beryllium-induced lung disease in experimental animal models.

Sequential analysis of the pathogenesis of plutonium-induced pulmonary neoplasms in the rat: morphology, morphometry, and cytokinetics.

Light microscopy, morphometry, and cytokinetic techniques were used to examine the dynamics of plutonium-induced pulmonary proliferative lesions and neoplasms in rats at several intervals to 450 days after inhalation exposure to aerosols of 239PuO2. Maximal increases in alveolar and bronchiolar epithelial cell labeling were seen at 30 days; decreasing subsequently, the levels remained elevated above control indices. Focal proliferative epithelial lesions developed in the lung by 180 days and before the onset of pulmonary neoplasms. Pulmonary neoplasms, predominantly adenocarcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas, were initially observed at 308 days. The proliferative lesions progressed through a succession of morphological changes leading to the development of neoplasms. The volume density (fraction) and epithelial surface area of foci of alveolar epithelial hyperplasia increased progressively between 180 and 450 days after exposure, in contrast to the other proliferative lesions. We conclude that plutonium-induced pulmonary neoplasms develop through a succession of focal proliferative lesions that represent developmental preneoplastic lesions. Progressive increases in volume and epithelial surface area of the alveolar epithelial hyperplasias suggest that they may be more at risk for neoplastic transformation than the other histological types of proliferative foci.

Dose-response relationships between inhaled beryllium metal and lung toxicity in C3H mice.

Inhaled beryllium (Be) can induce a range of adverse pulmonary responses in animals and humans including acute pneumonitis, chronic granulomatous lung disease, and cancer. To facilitate comparisons with our previous data describing Be toxicity in rats, we evaluated the toxic effects of inhaled Be metal in mice. Groups of 34 strain C3H/HeJ mice were acutely exposed by the nose-only route to aerosolized Be metal to achieve measured initial lung burdens of 0, 1.7, 2.6, 12, or 34 microg. All mice received aerosolized 85 Sr-labeled fused aluminosilicate particles (85 Sr-FAPs) immediately before their Be exposure so that the influence of Be on lung retention of these poorly soluble tracer particles could be externally quantitated. Groups of mice were euthanized at 8, 15, 40, 90, 210, and 350 days after exposure for evaluation of histopathological changes and for cytologic and biochemical indicators of lung damage measured in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Clearance of 85 Sr-FAP tracer particles through 196 days after exposure was delayed in mice receiving the 12 and 34 microg Be lung burdens, but not the 1.7 or 2.6 microg lung burdens. Increased total cell numbers, increased percentage of neutrophils, and elevated levels of total protein and the activities of beta-glucuronidase and lactate dehydrogenase in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were observed in the two highest Be lung burden groups compared with controls. Lung lesions included particle-containing macrophages, granulomatous pneumonia, lymphocytic interstitial aggregates, and mononuclear interstitial infiltrates. These lesions were occasionally seen in mice receiving the 2.6 microg lung burden, were present in most of the mice receiving 12 or 34 microg lung burdens, and were generally increased in severity with time and lung burden. Thus, we have demonstrated that a single, acute inhalation exposure to Be metal can chronically retard particle clearance and induce lung damage in mice. The initial lung burdens used caused responses ranging from no apparent effects to significant Be-induced responses. A comparison of these data with our previous data from rats indicates that the mass of Be metal required to induce lung damage in mice is similar to that needed for rats. When expressed on a lung weight-normalized basis, mice appeared to be more resistant to the toxic effects of inhaled Be than rats.

The effect of beryllium compound solubility on in vitro canine alveolar macrophage cytotoxicity.

Pulmonary alveolar macrophage cells (PAM), obtained by bronchopulmonary lavage of Beagle dogs, were exposed in vitro to beryllium oxide (BeO) particles calcined at either 500 or 1000 degrees C or to beryllium sulfate (BeSO4). Cell viability was determined by trypan blue dye exclusion after 20 h in culture. The most toxic material tested was BeSO4, followed by BeO calcined at 500 degrees C, then BeO calcined at 1000 degrees C. An in vitro dissolution technique was used to measure the relative solubility of the BeO particles. The BeO prepared at 500 degrees C exhibited greater solubility compared with BeO prepared at 1000 degrees C. This study extends previous work by examining the effects of beryllium compounds on canine PAM, and by relating PAM cytotoxicity with measured values of beryllium compound solubility.

Aerosols generated during beryllium machining.

Some beryllium processes, especially machining, are associated with an increased risk of beryllium sensitization and disease. Little is known about exposure characteristics contributing to risk, such as particle size. This study examined the characteristics of beryllium machining exposures under actual working conditions. Stationary samples, using eight-stage Lovelace Multijet Cascade Impactors, were taken at the process point of operation and at the closest point that the worker would routinely approach. Paired samples were collected at the operator's breathing zone by using a Marple Personal Cascade Impactor and a 35-mm closed-faced cassette. More than 50% of the beryllium machining particles in the breathing zone were less than 10 microns in aerodynamic diameter. This small particle size may result in beryllium deposition into the deepest portion of the lung and may explain elevated rates of sensitization among beryllium machinists.

A microspray nozzle for local administration of liquids or suspensions to lung airways via bronchoscopy.

A microspray nozzle has been developed for the localized administration of solutions or suspensions to discrete pulmonary airway regions via bronchoscopy. Toxicants or tracer particles can be administered to single or multiple, specific lung airway segments. This permits studies of local-airway, whole-lung, and systemic responses to inhaled materials. The nozzle is fabricated by ultra-precision machining, has an overall length of 1 mm, and a diameter small enough to fit in the end of a 1.1-mm inner diameter, 1.2-mm outer diameter catheter. In vitro studies demonstrated the delivery efficiency for 99mTc solutions (98 +/- 1% SD) and for suspensions of 99mTc sulfur colloid or 3-mum 85Sr-labeled microspheres (55 +/- 15%). Photographic and gamma camera images of material deposited in the airways of Beagle dogs demonstrated in vivo that the deposition patterns are compact and uniform. The technique may also have therapeutic medical applications.

Assessing risk communication effectiveness: perspectives of agency practitioners.

A study conducted by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), a US public health agency, evaluated ATSDR's risk communication process, specifically the roles and responsibilities, planning, implementation, and coordination of activities in response to illegal indoor spraying of methyl parathion, a hazardous pesticide, in Pascagoula, MS. Interviews of staff members involved in the intervention were conducted and an analysis revealed strengths and areas in need of improvement in the design and implementation of risk communication strategies. Key recommendations included developing a clear strategy for planning and conducting communication activities; determining staff roles and responsibilities for coordination; and developing clear and consistent health messages, a dissemination strategy, and training in the delivery and evaluation of messages, effects, and outcomes.

Modular glovebox connector and associated good practices for control of radioactive and chemically toxic materials.

Design and associated good practices are described for a modular glovebox connector to improve control of radioactive and chemically toxic materials. The connector consists of an anodized aluminum circular port with a mating spacer, gaskets, and retaining rings for joining two parallel ends of commercially available or custom-manufactured glovebox enclosures. Use of the connector allows multiple gloveboxes to be quickly assembled or reconfigured in functional units. Connector dimensions can be scaled to meet operational requirements for access between gloveboxes. Options for construction materials are discussed, along with recommendations for installation of the connector in new or retrofitted systems. Associated good practices include application of surface coatings and caulking, use of disposable glovebags, and proper selection and protection of gasket and glove materials. Use of the connector at an inhalation toxicology research facility has reduced the time and expense required to reconfigure equipment for changing operational requirements, the dispersion of contamination during reconfigurations, and the need for decommissioning and disposal of contaminated enclosures.

Generation of Li combustion aerosols for animal inhalation studies.

A system was developed for generating Li aerosols to determine the potential health hazards of postulated accidents associated with the use of Li as a fusion reactor blanket or coolant. The aerosol was generated by sweeping Ar through a stainless steel chamber filled with Li metal that was heated inductively to temperatures up to 1300 degrees C. Argon carried the Li vapor into a burning chamber where it was mixed with air. The reaction of Li vapor with air formed an intense white flame that produced typical branched-chain condensation aerosol particles. This system generated well-controlled concentrations up to 2500 mg/m3 for periods of 4 h. The mass median aeordynamic diameter of the aerosol was approximately 0.66 micron with a geometric standard deviation of 1.5. Aerosols could be generated that were greater than 96% Li2O and LiOH, LiOH.H2O, or Li2CO3 by controlling the CO2 and H2O concentrations in the supply air. The system is currently being used to investigate the acute toxicity of Li combustion aerosols in laboratory animals.

Chronic cigarette smoke exposure increases the pulmonary retention and radiation dose of 239Pu inhaled as 239PuO2 by F344 rats.

As a portion of a study to examine how chronic cigarette smoke exposure might alter the risk of lung tumors from inhaled 239puO2 in rats, the effects of smoke exposure on alpha-particle lung dosimetry over the life-span of exposed rats were determined. Male and female rats were exposed to inhaled 239PuO2 alone or in combination with cigarette smoke. Animals exposed to filtered air alone served as controls for the smoke exposure. Whole-body exposure to mainstream smoke diluted to concentrations of either 100 or 250 mg total particulate matter m(-3)(LCS or HCS, respectively) began at 6 wk of age and continued for 6 h d(-1), 5d wk(-1), for 30 mo. A single, pernasal, acute exposure to 239PuO2 was given to all rats (control, LCS and HCS) at 12 wk of age. Exposure to cigarette smoke caused decreased body weight gains in a concentration dependent manner. Lung-to-body weight ratios were increased in smoke-exposed rats. Rats exposed to cigarette smoke before the 239PuO2 exposure deposited less 239Pu in the lung than did controls. Except for male rats exposed to LCS, exposure to smoke retarded the clearance of 239Pu from the lung compared to control rats through study termination at 870 d after 239PuO2 exposure. Radiation doses to lungs were calculated by sex and by exposure group for rats on study for at least 360 d using modeled body weight changes, lung-to-body weight ratios, and standard dosimetric calculations. For both sexes, estimated lifetime radiation doses from the time of 239PuO2 exposure to death were 3.8 Gy, 4.4 Gy, or 6.7 Gy for the control, LCS, or HCS exposure groups, respectively. Assuming an approximately linear dose-response relationship between radiation dose and lung neoplasm incidence, approximate increases of 20% or 80% in tumor incidence over controls would be expected in rats exposed to 239PuO2 and LCS or 239PuO2 and HCS, respectively.

Occupational safety and health criteria for responsible development of nanotechnology.

Organizations around the world have called for the responsible development of nanotechnology. The goals of this approach are to emphasize the importance of considering and controlling the potential adverse impacts of nanotechnology in order to develop its capabilities and benefits. A primary area of concern is the potential adverse impact on workers, since they are the first people in society who are exposed to the potential hazards of nanotechnology. Occupational safety and health criteria for defining what constitutes responsible development of nanotechnology are needed. This article presents five criterion actions that should be practiced by decision-makers at the business and societal levels-if nanotechnology is to be developed responsibly. These include (1) anticipate, identify, and track potentially hazardous nanomaterials in the workplace; (2) assess workers' exposures to nanomaterials; (3) assess and communicate hazards and risks to workers; (4) manage occupational safety and health risks; and (5) foster the safe development of nanotechnology and realization of its societal and commercial benefits. All these criteria are necessary for responsible development to occur. Since it is early in the commercialization of nanotechnology, there are still many unknowns and concerns about nanomaterials. Therefore, it is prudent to treat them as potentially hazardous until sufficient toxicology, and exposure data are gathered for nanomaterial-specific hazard and risk assessments. In this emergent period, it is necessary to be clear about the extent of uncertainty and the need for prudent actions.

Compartmental modeling of the long-term retention of insoluble particles deposited in the alveolar region of the lung.

The state of the art for modeling the retention of inhaled insoluble particles deposited in the alveolar region of the lung is briefly reviewed, and a new compartmental model of long-term retention is proposed. Wherever possible, this new model favors the replacement of simple first-order kinetics of particle transport processes in the lung by quantified mechanisms derived from or suggested by experimental data of published studies in lung physiology and histopathology. In particular, all macrophage-mediated transport processes, including classical alveolar clearance onto the mucociliary escalator, are modeled as dependent on actual macrophage mobility and are assumed to be influenced by the finite macrophage life time. The mobility is predicted to decrease with increasing particle burden of the macrophage, and there is a limit to the macrophage capacity for accumulating burdens of insoluble particles by phagocytosis. Furthermore, at high particle burdens, macrophages will be progressivity sequestered by irreversible aggregation and immobilization. Using published data on Fischer 344 rats for a quantitative demonstration of the patterns of the new model under chronic exposures, a basic set of model parameters predicts that, at moderate particle deposition rates, retention is limiting itself by establishing a steady state, and the alveolar burden is almost completely eliminated during the postexposure period. However, at high particle deposition rates, the alveolar particle burden increases continuously during the exposure period, and only a small fraction of the deposit is subject to clearance after termination of exposure. In qualitative terms, these are typical features of the "overload" effect which has been observed in a number of recent chronic aerosol inhalation exposure studies with animals.

The acute toxicity of inhaled beryllium metal in rats.

We exposed rats once by nose only for 50 min to a mean concentration of 800 micrograms/m3 of beryllium metal (initial lung burden, 625 micrograms) to characterize the acute toxic effects within the lung. Histological changes within the lung and enzyme changes within bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid were evaluated at 3, 7, 10, 14, 31, 59, 115, and 171 days postexposure (dpe). Beryllium metal-exposed rats developed acute, necrotizing, hemorrhagic, exudative pneumonitis and intraalveolar fibrosis that peaked at 14 dpe. By 31 dpe, inflammatory lesions were replaced by minimal interstitial and intraalveolar fibrosis. Necrotizing inflammation was observed again at 59 dpe which progressed to chronic-active inflammation by 115 dpe. This inflammation worsened progressively, as did alveolar macrophage and epithelial hyperplasia, becoming severe at 171 dpe. Low numbers of diffusely distributed lymphocytes were also present but they were not associated with granulomas as is observed in beryllium-induced disease in man. Throughout the experiment, total numbers of cells were elevated within the BAL samples due primarily to increased numbers of neutrophils. Lymphocytes were not elevated in BAL samples collected from beryllium-exposed rats at any time after exposure. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), beta-glucuronidase, and protein levels were elevated in BAL fluid from 3 through 14 dpe but returned to near normal levels by 31 dpe. LDH increased once again at 59 dpe and remained elevated at 171 dpe. beta-Glucuronidase and protein levels were slightly, but not significantly, elevated from 31 through 171 dpe. Results indicate that inhalation of beryllium metal by rats results in severe, acute chemical pneumonitis that is followed by a quiescent period of minimal inflammation and mild fibrosis. Progressive, chronic-active, fibrosing pneumonitis is observed later. Chronic beryllium lung disease of man is an immunologically mediated granulomatous lung disease, whereas beryllium-induced lung lesions in rats appear to be due to direct chemical toxicity and foreign-body-type reactions.

Effects of beryllium metal particles on the viability and function of cultured rat alveolar macrophages.

The physicochemical properties of particles influence their in vivo toxicity following deposition in the respiratory tract. To evaluate the relative contributions of mass and surface area to particle-induced toxicity, rat pulmonary alveolar macrophages (PAM) were exposed to four types of particles in vitro. We used three beryllium metal samples: relatively large (Be-II) and relatively small (Be-V) sized fractions of beryllium metal obtained from an aerosol cyclone, and a beryllium metal aerosol generated by laser vaporization of bulk beryllium metal in an argon atmosphere (Be-L). We also used glass beads (GB) as a negative control particle. End points examined included cell viability, determined by trypan blue dye exclusion, and changes in phagocytic ability, measured by counting the number of sheep red blood cells internalized by the PAM. Phagocytic ability was inhibited by exposure to beryllium particles at concentrations that did not cause appreciable cell death. Results describing effects based on the mass concentration of particles in culture medium were transformed by the amount of specific surface area of the particles to permit the expression of toxicity relative to the amount of particle surface per unit volume of culture medium. On a mass basis, the order of particle-related cytotoxicity was Be-L greater than Be-V greater than Be-II greater than GB, and for inhibition of phagocytosis, the order was Be-L approximately Be-V greater than Be-II greater than GB. When analyzed on a specific surface area basis, the cytotoxicity of the different materials became more similar in a fashion that was largely predicted by the amount of surface of the particles administered. However, because differences in specific surface area among the beryllium particle samples did not entirely predict cytotoxicity, we concluded that factors in addition to specific surface area influenced the expression of toxic effects in cultures of PAM exposed to beryllium metal.

Dosimetry of beryllium in cultured canine pulmonary alveolar macrophages.

This study was designed to determine the dosimetry within macrophages of beryllium compounds administered at sublethal doses. Information on the dosimetry of beryllium within macrophages is required to guide further efforts to isolate and characterize beryllium-containing haptens. Inhalation of beryllium aerosols can cause chronic berylliosis, a progressive, granulomatous fibrosis of the lung. Studies in laboratory animals indicate that alveolar macrophages take up beryllium compounds and participate in a hypersensitivity immune response to beryllium-containing antigen. Beagle dog macrophage cultures were incubated with 7BeSO4 in solution or with suspensions of 7BeO particles that had been calcined at 500 or 1000 degrees C. Beryllium-7 was measured in fractions collected from cultures after successive centrifugation and filtration steps at 2, 6, 20, and 48 h after addition. An insignificant percentage of BeSO4 was taken up by the cells and did not cause cytotoxicity. Maximum BeO uptake occurred within 6 h, was 60 +/- 6% of added BeO, and was independent of BeO calcination temperature or specific surface area. Approximately 22% of 500 degrees C BeO dissolved within 48 h after addition to cell culture, concurrent with 39% cell killing. Dissolved beryllium remained associated with cells until a cytotoxic concentration was reached (2.2 x 10(-5) M, 15 nmol Be/10(6) cells), when the beryllium was released into the medium. There was no significant dissolution of the 1000 degrees C BeO within 48 h, and no significant cell killing. The results indicate that beryllium dissolved from phagocytized BeO was more cytotoxic than soluble beryllium added extracellularly. The data support an interactive mechanism in which phagocytized BeO particles were dissolved, and dissolved beryllium remained associated with the macrophage until a cytotoxic concentration accumulated, whereupon the beryllium was released to the medium and not appreciably taken up by viable cells.

Determination of the oxide layer thickness on beryllium metal particles.

The hypothesis was tested that beryllium metal particles have a uniformly thick surface coating of beryllium oxide and that smaller particles should have a higher oxide fraction by mass because they have a higher surface to volume ratio. The mass fraction of oxygen, physical density, and specific surface area were determined for size-fractionated samples of respirable beryllium metal particles. The largest particles analyzed (count median diameter 4.6 microns with geometric standard deviation 1.6) contained 7% +/- 1% beryllium oxide by mass; had a physical density of 1.90 +/- 0.02 g/cm3; and had a specific surface area of 4.0 +/- 0.3 m2/g. The smallest particles analyzed (count median diameter 0.4 micron with geometric standard deviation 1.8) contained 31% +/- 3% beryllium oxide by mass; had a physical density of 2.00 +/- 0.17 g/cm3; and had a specific surface area of 20.8 +/- 2.1 m2/g. These shifts in density and oxide content with size and surface area are consistent with a beryllium metal core of density 1.84 +/- 0.02 g/cm3 (1.848 g/cm3 is theoretical); a beryllium oxide layer of density of 2.53 +/- 0.16 g/cm3 (3.025 g/cm3 is the perfect crystalline density); and an oxide layer thickness of 49 +/- 4 A for all particle sizes. These results indicate that the inhalation toxicity of beryllium metal particles may be similar to that of beryllium oxide formed at low temperatures.

Disposition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the respiratory tract of the beagle dog. I. The alveolar region.

Clearance of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from the respiratory tract follows a biphasic pattern, with a rapid clearance of most of the PAH followed by a slow clearance of a small fraction. In previously published models, it was predicted that the rapid phase represents clearance through the thin epithelial barriers in the alveoli, the slow clearance is through the thicker epithelium of the airways, and the rate of clearance from either region will be slowed if the PAH has a high degree of lipophilicity. The objective of this first study in a series of three was to validate model predictions for rates of alveolar clearance of PAHs of different lipophilicities. A new method was developed to expose dogs to a bolus of aerosolized crystals of either benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) or phenanthrene (Phe) in a single breath. A bolus of PAH crystals was formed by condensation from a heated vapor and was injected into the pulmonary region. The bloodborne clearance of the PAHs was monitored by repeatedly sampling blood through catheters in the ascending aorta and the right atrium of the dog. Half of the Phe and the BaP cleared within 1 min and 2.4 min, respectively. The data indicated that the clearance of the highly lipophilic BaP was limited by diffusion of the PAH through the alveolar septa, while clearance of the moderately lipophilic Phe was limited mostly by the rate of perfusion of the blood. The results indicate that inhaled PAHs of sufficient lipophilicity to limit diffusion through cells have a greater potential for toxicity to the lung than less lipophilic PAHs. Because of thicker epithelia, bronchi should be at greater risk than the alveoli for PAH-induced toxicity exerted at the portal of entry.