Agonistic behaviour of wild eels and depressed survival and growth of farmed eels in mixed rearing experiments.

To contribute to improving eel stocking procedures, the survival, growth and behaviour of farmed Japanese eels reared together with wild individuals were evaluated to learn about possible encounters of farmed- and stocked eels with wild eels. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the (a) effect of the presence of wild eels on survival and growth of farmed eels in experimental ponds and (b) behavioural differences between wild and farmed eels placed in a small tank. In the survival and growth experiment, significantly lower survival and growth rates of farmed eels reared with wild eels were observed compared with farmed eels reared without wild eels (control). In the behavioural observations, the authors observed significantly higher occupation rates of a refuge and more frequent biting for wild eels, indicating a dominance of wild eels over farmed eels. Because wild and farmed eels used in the current experiments belong to the same genetic population, these differences resulted within one generation through the aquaculture rearing process.

Slower growth of farmed eels stocked into rivers with higher wild eel density.

Farmed anguillid eels are frequently stocked into natural fresh waters to enhance eel resources, but little is known about what happens to these eels or their interactions with wild eels after stocking. A recent study observed a depressed survival and growth rate of farmed Japanese eels when they were reared with wild eels, which indicated that wild eels might interfere with the survival and growth of farmed-and-stocked eels through intraspecific competition. To contribute to improving eel stocking efficiency, the growth of farmed-and-stocked Japanese eels was compared among four rivers with different wild eel densities using mark-and-recapture studies. Based on the 2-year recapture survey after stocking, it was found that the density of the farmed-and-stocked eels was not significantly different among rivers. The daily growth rates of farmed-and-stocked eels in the rivers with lower wild eel density were significantly higher than those of the eels stocked into the rivers with higher wild eel density. The farmed-and-stocked eels moved significantly greater distances downstream than wild eels that showed sedentary behaviour. This and previous studies indicate that significant questions remain about the effectiveness of stocking farmed eels into water bodies where naturally recruited wild eels are present.

Distribution of wild and stocked Japanese eels in the lower reaches of the Tone River catchment revealed by otolith stable-isotope ratios.

The natural occurrence of Japanese eels Anguilla japonica in Japan's highly altered catchments is a critical measure of habitat restoration and ecosystem health, yet this metric may be obscured by the incidence of co-occurring cultured eels. Distribution of wild and stocked A. japonica in the lower reaches of the Tone River cachment was investigated using otolith oxygen and carbon stable-isotope ratios (δ18 O and δ13 C). We developed a discrimination model to classify wild and cultured eels for 560 individuals and applied it to eels captured in the lower reaches of the Tone River catchment. Wild eels were found at all study sites of this part of the catchment, indicating natural recruitment of the species occurred from the estuary to third-order streams at least as far as Lake Imbanuma. The proportion of wild eels ranged from 86 to 100% at river and stream sites and was only 23% at upstream Lake Imbanuma sites. This difference probably depends on whether or not eels were released near the corresponding site. More than 50% of stocked eels occurred at sites proximate to release locations, indicating limited dispersal by cultured eels.

Morphological and Molecular Gonadal Sex Differentiation in the Wild Japanese eel Anguilla japonica.

Most cultured Japanese eels (Anguilla japonica) show male sex differentiation; however, natural gonadal sex differentiation has not been evaluated. In this study, this process was characterized in wild eels. Differentiated ovaries and testes were observed after the eels grew to 320 and 300 mm in total length, respectively. The youngest ovary and testis appeared at 3 and 4 years old, respectively; however, undifferentiated gonads were found up to 7 years, suggesting that sex differentiation was triggered by growth rather than aging. gsdf, amh, foxl2b and foxl3b were highly expressed in the testes, whereas figla, sox3, foxn5, zar1, and zp3 were highly expressed in the ovaries. The expression of cyp19a1a and foxl2a did not differ significantly between the testis and ovary. In the ovaries, the cyp19a1a and foxl2a levels were highest in the early stages, suggesting that their function is limited to early ovarian differentiation. The foxn5, zar1 and zp3 levels tended to increase in the later stages, suggesting that they function after the initiation of ovarian differentiation. In undifferentiated gonads, dimorphic gene expression was not observed, suggesting that the molecular sex differentiation phase is short and difficult to detect. These findings provide the first demonstration of the whole course of natural gonadal sex differentiation in eels at molecular and morphological levels.

Habitat preference, movements and growth of giant mottled eels, Anguilla marmorata, in a small subtropical Amami-Oshima Island river.

Although anguillid eel populations have decreased remarkably in recent decades, few detailed ecological studies have been conducted on tropical eels such as the giant mottled eel whose range extends across the whole Indo-Pacific. This species was studied throughout the entire 0.5 km mainstem reaches of Oganeku River on the subtropical Amami-Oshima Island of Japan over a two-year period using four sampling periods to understand its habitat preference, early life-stage dispersal process, movements, and annual growth using a mark-recapture experiment conducted with quantitative electrofishing. A total of 396 juvenile growth-phase A. marmorata eels were caught and tagged, with 48 individuals being recaptured at least once. Their density irrespective of size of eels was most strongly determined by distance from the river mouth, followed by riverbank type according to random forest models. Eel density decreased with increasing distance from the freshwater tidal limit located about 100-150 m from the river mouth. Eels preferred vegetated riverbanks, while they avoided those of concrete and sand. The density of small eels (total length: TL < 240 mm) was also associated with depth and velocity, with small eels tending to prefer riffle or run habitats. In contrast, large eels (TL ≥ 240 mm) were found in habitats of any depth and velocity. The TL of eels had a minimum peak at around the tidal limit, and it increased with increasing distance from the tidal limit. The observed density and size gradients of eels in relation to the distance from the river mouth suggested that A. marmorata initially recruited to freshwater tidal limit areas and then dispersed in both downstream and upstream directions. The growth rate of eels varied greatly among individuals that were at large for various periods of time and ranged from 0 to 163.2 mm/year (mean ± SD of 31.8 ± 31.0 mm/year). Of the recaptured eels, 52.1% were recaptured in a section that was different from the original capture section, and their mean ± SD distance travelled was 46.5 ± 72.5 m (median = 20 m). 47.9% of the eels were recaptured from the original section of capture (i.e., <10 m distances travelled), suggesting that they had strong fidelity to specific habitats with limited movements. The distance travelled of eels that had moved was greater for small eels (range = 10-380 m; mean ± SD = 84.4 ± 121.9 m) than large individuals (range = 10-120 m; mean ± SD = 30.9 ± 31.0 m), which indicates that the mobility of the eels declines as they grow. This is the first clear detailed documentation of the spatial distribution, growth, and movements of tropical eels in a small river system in relation to environmental conditions that provides an example of how future studies can be conducted in other areas to understand how conservation efforts can be most efficiently targeted for maximum success.

Anguillid eels as a surrogate species for conservation of freshwater biodiversity in Japan.

To monitor and manage biodiversity, surrogate species (i.e., indicator, umbrella and flagship species) have been proposed where conservation resources are focused on a limited number of focal organisms. Using data obtained from 78 sites across six rivers in the mainland Japan and the Amami-Oshima Island, we demonstrate that two anguillids - the Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) and the giant mottled eel (A. marmorata) - can act as surrogate species for conservation of freshwater biodiversity. Anguillid eels were the widest topographically-distributed species ranging from near the mouth to the upper reaches of rivers. Moreover, stable isotopic analyses indicated that eels are likely one of the highest-order predators in freshwater ecosystems. A significant positive relationship was found between the density of eels and the number of other diadromous species collected. However, the optimal models revealed that both the density of eels and the number of other diadromous species were significantly negatively correlated with distance from the river mouth and cumulative height of trans-river structures from the river mouth to each site. This suggests the positive relationship between eel density and number of other diadromous species was indirect and related to river-ocean connectivity. Given their catadromous life-cycle, and global commercial and cultural importance, as a taxa, anguillid eels can act as indicator, umbrella and flagship species, and a comprehensive surrogate for conservation of freshwater biodiversity.

Estimations of Riverine Distribution, Abundance, and Biomass of Anguillid Eels in Japan and Taiwan Using Environmental DNA Analysis.

Although populations of anguillid eels have declined remarkably in recent decades, monitoring data on the spatial and temporal variation in their dynamics are often limited, particularly for tropical eel species. As there are often sympatries of multiple eel species in tropical rivers, identifying eel species based solely on morphological characteristics is challenging. Basin-scale surveys were conducted in rivers of southern Japan and northern Taiwan to investigate (1) whether the spatial distribution, abundance, and biomass of the tropical eel species, the giant mottled eel (Anguilla marmorata), can be monitored in rivers by comparing the results obtained from environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis with data from electrofishing and (2) the riverine distribution of the sympatric A. marmorata and the temperate eel species, the Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica), in this region using eDNA analysis. Although we found an much lower abundance of A. marmorata in the study region, we identified the eDNA of the species from all of the study sites (21 sites) where it was collected by electrofishing, in addition to 22 further study sites where it was not collected directly. This indicates that eDNA analysis has a greater sensitivity for detecting A. marmorata, making it a powerful tool for monitoring the spatial distribution of the species in rivers. We found a significant positive relationship between eDNA concentration and both the abundance and biomass of A. marmorata, and eDNA concentration seemed to better reflect the abundance of the species than did biomass. eDNA of both A. japonica and A. marmorata was identified from almost all rivers, indicating the sympatry of these species in this region, although the degree of sympatry differed between rivers. Though the eDNA concentration of A. japonica decreased significantly with increasing distance from the river mouth, no significant relationship was found for A. marmorata. This study is the first to demonstrate the potential usefulness of eDNA analysis for estimating the spatial distribution, abundance, and biomass of tropical eels in rivers and to further apply this method to investigate sympatry among anguillid species. eDNA analysis can help in obtaining data on the population dynamics of tropical eels, providing invaluable information for managing these species.

Age, Growth, and Sex Ratios of the Giant Mottled eel, Anguilla marmorata, in Freshwater Habitats Near Its Northern Geographic Limit: A Comparison to Tropical Regions.

To understand the latitudinal difference in the basic ecology of the giant mottled eel Anguilla marmorata, we measured its age, growth, and sex ratios in freshwater areas of Amami-Oshima Island, Japan (28.223°N-28.332°N and 129.329°E-129.439°E), near the northern geographic limit of its range and compared these biological characteristics with those observed in the tropical regions of Indonesia. A total of 109 A. marmorata were captured from three rivers on Amami-Oshima Island. The total length (TL) and age of sampled individuals varied across an order of magnitude (TL range: 119-1320 mm, mean: 385.5 ± 172.6; age range: 3-30 years, mean: 12.8 ± 4.9 years). Neither TL nor age differed among rivers. Male A. marmorata accounted for 88.5% of sexually differentiated individuals, which it contrary to previous results for males living in Indonesian watersheds where males were only found in small rivers and areas close to estuaries. Moreover, we found no males larger than 700 mm in TL and few males that were older than 20 years. The growth rates of male A. marmorata were significantly lower than those of females, and growth rates of sexually undifferentiated fish were significantly less than those of males. The mean growth rate of all individuals was 25.9 ± 6.6 mm/y, which is considerably lower than what has been found at lower latitudes, suggesting that growth differences occur along a latitudinal cline.