A novel thin layer chromatography-flame ionization detection method for saturated, asphaltenes, resins, and asphaltenes group-type composition analysis with reverse order of chromatogram development.

The methodologies of asphaltenes-containing petroleum materials: saturated, aromatics, resins, asphaltenes group-type composition analysis are performed with the use of column adsorption-desorption or thin layer chromatography (TLC)-flame ionization detection under normal phase conditions with silica gel as the adsorbent. In a three-step procedure, the TLC chromatogram is developed within a decreasing distance by the mobile phase with increasing elution strength (polarity). The n-alkane used in the first step does not dissolve asphaltenes, which leads to the occlusion effect and an underestimation of the percentage of saturated hydrocarbons. In this article, the reverse order of the subsequent elution steps was proposed: the solvent polarity is simultaneously reduced and the chromatogram development distance is increased in the order dichloromethane:methanol 95:5 v/v, 3 cm; toluene, 6 cm; and n-hexane, 10 cm. It was also intentional to reduce the weight of the applied sample to 5 µg for bitumen and 2 µg for asphaltene purity testing. It should be the rule that in stepwise TLC chromatogram development, the first mobile phase is a good solvent for all testing components. The IP 469 procedure should be corrected.

Chromatographic separation, determination and identification of ecdysteroids: Focus on Maral root (Rhaponticum carthamoides, Leuzea carthamoides).

The review presents general principles for choosing optimal conditions for ecdysteroid separation, identification, and isolation using HPLC/TLC techniques in RP, NP-HILIC or NP modes. Analytics of ecdyteroids pose a still insufficiently resolved problem. Plant-derived ecdysteroids are a point of interest of pharmaceutical industry and sport medicine due to their postulated adaptogenic and anabolic properties. In insects, ecdysteroids regulate larval transformation. Maral root (Rhaponticum carthamoides, Leuzea carthamoides), traditional Siberian folk-medicine plant used as stimulant to boost overall health and fitness, is a particularly rich source of a wide variety of phytoecdysteroids. The similarity of molecular structures of ecdysteroids present in its extracts together with high content of unrelated compounds of similar chromatographic characteristics makes optimization of separation, identification and isolation of ecdysteroids a difficult analytical task. In that respect, two-dimensional separations, two-dimensional separations, 2D HPLC or 2D TLC, could be of use. For identification, the hyphenated techniques are particularly important. Thus, comprehensive overview of MS spectral parameters of ecdysteroids is provided. Described principles could easily be applied for separation of ecdysteroids in extracts from other sources. They are also useful for development of separation procedures for isolation of ecysteroids in preparative-scale applications.

Hydrogen Production from Energy Poplar Preceded by MEA Pre-Treatment and Enzymatic Hydrolysis.

The need to pre-treat lignocellulosic biomass prior to dark fermentation results primarily from the composition of lignocellulose because lignin hinders the processing of hard wood towards useful products. Hence, in this work a two-step approach for the pre-treatment of energy poplar, including alkaline pre-treatment and enzymatic saccharification followed by fermentation has been studied. Monoethanolamine (MEA) was used as the alkaline catalyst and diatomite immobilized bed enzymes were used during saccharification. The response surface methodology (RSM) method was used to determine the optimal alkaline pre-treatment conditions resulting in the highest values of both total released sugars (TRS) yield and degree of lignin removal. Three variable parameters (temperature, MEA concentration, time) were selected to optimize the alkaline pre-treatment conditions. The research was carried out using the Box-Behnken design. Additionally, the possibility of the re-use of both alkaline as well as enzymatic reagents was investigated. Obtained hydrolysates were subjected to dark fermentation in batch reactors performed by Enterobacter aerogenes ATCC 13048 with a final result of 22.99 mL H2/g energy poplar (0.6 mol H2/mol TRS).

Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Materials as Substrates for Fermentation Processes.

Lignocellulosic biomass is an abundant and renewable resource that potentially contains large amounts of energy. It is an interesting alternative for fossil fuels, allowing the production of biofuels and other organic compounds. In this paper, a review devoted to the processing of lignocellulosic materials as substrates for fermentation processes is presented. The review focuses on physical, chemical, physicochemical, enzymatic, and microbiologic methods of biomass pretreatment. In addition to the evaluation of the mentioned methods, the aim of the paper is to understand the possibilities of the biomass pretreatment and their influence on the efficiency of biofuels and organic compounds production. The effects of different pretreatment methods on the lignocellulosic biomass structure are described along with a discussion of the benefits and drawbacks of each method, including the potential generation of inhibitory compounds for enzymatic hydrolysis, the effect on cellulose digestibility, the generation of compounds that are toxic for the environment, and energy and economic demand. The results of the investigations imply that only the stepwise pretreatment procedure may ensure effective fermentation of the lignocellulosic biomass. Pretreatment step is still a challenge for obtaining cost-effective and competitive technology for large-scale conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into fermentable sugars with low inhibitory concentration.

Novel stationary phases based on asphaltenes for gas chromatography.

We present the results of investigations on the possibility of the application of the asphaltene fraction isolated from the oxidized residue from vacuum distillation of crude oil as a stationary phase for gas chromatography. The results of the investigation revealed that the asphaltene stationary phases can find use for the separation of a wide range of volatile organic compounds. The experimental values of Rohrschneider/McReynolds constants characterize the asphaltenes as stationary phases of medium polarity and selectivity similar to commercially available phases based on alkyl phthalates. Isolation of asphaltenes from the material obtained under controlled process conditions allows the production of a stationary phase having reproducible sorption properties and chromatographic columns having the same selectivity. Unique selectivity and high thermal stability make asphaltenes attractive as a material for stationary phases for gas chromatography. A low production cost from a readily available raw material (oxidized petroleum bitumens) is an important economic factor in case of application of the asphaltene stationary phases for preparative and process separations.

Studies of the separation performance of silanized silica gel for simulated distillation.

We present the results of investigations of the chromatographic (sorptive) properties of silanized silica gel as a stationary phase for gas chromatography used for simulated distillation. Commercially available silanized sorbent (particle diameter range 63-200 µm, average pore size 60 Å) was sieved to obtain the 80-100 mesh fraction (180-150 µm). The obtained results revealed that silanized silica gel allows the complete separation of a mixture of n- and iso-alkanes in the C1 -C7 range. Such a separation is achieved with a temperature program starting with an initial temperature of 50˚C, which is advantageous because the gas chromatograph oven does not have to be cooled below room temperature. The use of temperature programming with a final temperature of 300˚C ensures separation and elution of all mixture components from C1 to n-C28 in one run. This study confirms the applicability of silanized silica gel as a stationary phase for the investigation of distillation temperature distribution of gasoline and diesel fuel based on the simulated distillation procedure according to ASTM D2887. The deviations of individual points of distillation curve obtained using ASTM D2887 and columns packed with silanized silica gel were within the reproducibility range of the standard procedure.

Size-exclusion chromatography for the determination of the boiling point distribution of high-boiling petroleum fractions.

The paper describes a new procedure for the determination of boiling point distribution of high-boiling petroleum fractions using size-exclusion chromatography with refractive index detection. Thus far, the determination of boiling range distribution by chromatography has been accomplished using simulated distillation with gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. This study revealed that in spite of substantial differences in the separation mechanism and the detection mode, the size-exclusion chromatography technique yields similar results for the determination of boiling point distribution compared with simulated distillation and novel empty column gas chromatography. The developed procedure using size-exclusion chromatography has a substantial applicability, especially for the determination of exact final boiling point values for high-boiling mixtures, for which a standard high-temperature simulated distillation would have to be used. In this case, the precision of final boiling point determination is low due to the high final temperatures of the gas chromatograph oven and an insufficient thermal stability of both the gas chromatography stationary phase and the sample. Additionally, the use of high-performance liquid chromatography detectors more sensitive than refractive index detection allows a lower detection limit for high-molar-mass aromatic compounds, and thus increases the sensitivity of final boiling point determination.

Research on the separation properties of empty-column gas chromatography (EC-GC) and conditions for simulated distillation (SIMDIS).

Previous studies have revealed it is possible to separate a high-boiling mixture by gas chromatography in empty fused-silica capillary tubing rather than in columns coated with stationary phase. Chromatographic separation occurs solely on the basis of the different boiling points of the substances separated. The high similarity of such separations to those in classic distillation seems advantageous when gas chromatography is used for simulated distillation. This paper presents results from further research on the separation properties of empty fused silica tubing. The efficiency of this chromatographic system has been examined. The usefulness of such conditions has been studied for simulated distillation, i.e. to determine the boiling-point distribution of complex mixtures, mainly petroleum fractions and products, on the basis of their retention relative to reference substances. The results obtained by use of empty-column gas chromatography (EC-GC) and by use of classical simulated distillation columns have been compared for solutes of different polarity. Studies revealed boiling points determined by EC-GC were more accurate than those obtained by the standard method of simulated distillation.

Application of normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography followed by gas chromatography for analytics of diesel fuel additives.

The paper presents the results of investigations on new procedures of determination of selected cleaning additives in diesel fuel. Two procedures: one-step analysis using gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) or mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and a two-step procedure in which normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (NP-HPLC) was used for preliminary separation of the additives, were compared. The additive fraction was collected using either simple elution or eluent backflush. Final determinations were performed by GC-FID and GC-MS. The studies revealed that it was impossible to determine the investigated analytes by one-step procedures, i.e. by using solely HPLC or GC. On the other hand, the use of a two-step procedure ensures reproducible results of determinations, and the limits of quantitation are, depending on the method of fraction collection by HPLC, from 1.4-2.2 ppm (GC-MS in SIM mode) to 9.6-24.0 ppm (GC-FID). Precision and accuracy of the developed procedures are compared, and possible determination errors and shortcomings discussed.

Separation and determination of the group-type composition of modern base and lubricating oils with a wide range of polarity, especially emitted to the environment.

Lubricating oils are composed of base oils (>85% v/v) and enriching additives (<15% v/v). Three types of base oils may be distinguished: 1) traditional bases (obtained by low-volatile fractions from crude oil distillation refining), 2) synthetic bases (mainly poly-alpha-olefins, sometimes esters, especially succinic acid esters), 3) bases of natural origin (especially obtained from refined plant oils). The bases of natural origin are the only ones recommended for application when lubricating oil may be emitted to the environment (e.g. when the machine with an open cutting system is used). Group-type separation and analysis of group-type composition of base and lubricating oils are of significant importance in quality control and environmental monitoring. Due to the potentially wide range of polarity of the components of base and lubricating oils, group- type separation becomes a difficult separation problem. It is also a serious analytical problem due to the considerable diversity of physicochemical properties. The authors propose a new procedure for the separation and determination of the group-type composition of base and lubricating oils using thin-layer liquid chromatography in normal phase systems (abr. NP-TLC) on silica gel plates impregnated with berberine salt/in the coupling of thin-layer chromatography with flame ionization detection (abr. TLC-FID). A new, effective procedure of TLC plates impregnation with berberine sulphate was presented. The proposed procedure ensures the visualization of all groups of base oils. Extensive experimental research showed that a 2-step development procedure with application of n-hexane up to 100% height of development +15 min and further n-hexane: isopropanol: tri-fluoroacetic acid 96.25: 3: 0.75 (v: v: v) up to 75% height of development is advantageous for the group-type separation, both in TLC-FID and TLC.

A new procedure for the determination of distillation temperature distribution of high-boiling petroleum products and fractions.

The distribution of distillation temperatures of liquid and semi-fluid products, including petroleum fractions and products, is an important process and practical parameter. It provides information on properties of crude oil and content of particular fractions, classified on the basis of their boiling points, as well as the optimum conditions of atmospheric or vacuum distillation. At present, the distribution of distillation temperatures is often investigated by simulated distillation (SIMDIS) using capillary gas chromatography (CGC) with a short capillary column with polydimethylsiloxane as the stationary phase. This paper presents the results of investigations on the possibility of replacing currently used CGC columns for SIMDIS with a deactivated fused silica capillary tube without any stationary phase. The SIMDIS technique making use of such an empty fused silica column allows a considerable lowering of elution temperature of the analytes, which results in a decrease of the final oven temperature while ensuring a complete separation of the mixture. This eliminates the possibility of decomposition of less thermally stable mixture components and bleeding of the stationary phase which would result in an increase of the detector signal. It also improves the stability of the baseline, which is especially important in the determination of the end point of elution, which is the basis for finding the final temperature of distillation. This is the key parameter for the safety process of hydrocracking, where an excessively high final temperature of distillation of a batch can result in serious damage to an expensive catalyst bed. This paper compares the distribution of distillation temperatures of the fraction from vacuum distillation of petroleum obtained using SIMDIS with that obtained by the proposed procedure. A good agreement between the two procedures was observed. In addition, typical values of elution temperatures of n-paraffin standards obtained by the two procedures were compared. Finally, the agreement between boiling points of polar compounds determined from their retention times and actual boiling points was investigated.

Sample preparation procedure for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in petroleum vacuum residue and bitumen.

This paper describes a novel method of sample preparation for the determination of trace concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in high-boiling petroleum products. Limits of quantitation of the investigated PAHs in materials of this type range from tens of nanograms per kilogram to <20 µg/kg. The studies revealed that in order to separate most of interferences from the analytes without a significant loss of PAHs, it is necessary to use size exclusion chromatography as the first step of sample preparation, followed by adsorption using normal-phase liquid chromatography. The use of orthogonal separation procedure described in the paper allows the isolation of only a group of unsubstituted and substituted aromatic hydrocarbons with a specific range of molar mass. The lower the required limit of quantitation of PAHs, the larger is the scale of preparative liquid chromatography in both steps of sample preparation needed. The use of internal standard allows quantitative results to be corrected for the degree of recovery of PAHs during the sample preparation step. Final determination can be carried out using HPLC-FLD, GC-MS, or HPLC-UV-VIS/DAD. The last technique provides a degree of identification through the acquired UV-VIS spectra.

Ecological and Health Effects of Lubricant Oils Emitted into the Environment.

Lubricating oils used in machines with an open cutting system, such as a saw or harvester, are applied in forest areas, gardening, in the household, and in urban greenery. During the operation of the device with an open cutting system, the lubricating oil is emitted into the environment. Therefore, the use of an oil base and refining additives of petroleum origin in the content of lubricants is associated with a negative impact on health and the environment. The current legal regulations concerning lubricants applicable in the European Union (EU) assess the degree of biodegradability. Legislation permits the use of biodegradable oils at 60% for a period of 28 days. This means that, in practice, lubricating oil considered to be biodegradable can contain up to 50% of the so-called petroleum oil base. The paper aims to draw public attention to the need to reduce the toxicity and harmful effects, due to their composition, of lubricating oils emitted into the environment on health. The authors discuss the impact of petroleum oil lubricants on soils, groundwater, vegetation, and animals, and the impact of petroleum-origin oil mist on health. An overview of test methods for the biodegradability of lubricating oils is presented, including the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 301 A-F, 310, and 302 A-D tests, as well as their standard equivalents. The current legal regulations regarding the use and control of lubricating oils emitted into the environment are discussed. Legal provisions are divided according to their area of application. Key issues regarding the biodegradability and toxicity of petroleum fractions in lubricating oils are also addressed. It is concluded that lubricating oils, emitted or potentially emitted into the environment, should contain only biodegradable ingredients in order to eliminate the negative impact on both the environment and health. Total biodegradability should be confirmed by widely applied tests. Therefore, a need to develop and implement low-cost and simple control procedures for each type of lubricating oil, ensuring the possibility of an indisputable conclusion about the presence and total absence of petroleum-derived components in oil, as well as the content of natural ingredients, occurs.

The Thin-Layer Microchromatography (µTLC) and TLC-FID Technique as a New Methodology in the Study of Lubricating Oils.

This paper concerns the possibility of using TLC coupled with a flame ionization detector (FID) and micro-TLC (µTLC) as precursors for microfluidized devices of analytical techniques to identify and determine the presence and content of the petroleum/vegetable oil base in the lubricating oils applied in cutting devices (chainsaws). This research is related to the problem of ensuring, in compliance with the requirements of environmental protection, a sufficient level of biodegradability of lubricating oils emitted to the environment during operation of equipment lubricated with these oils. Such oils include those mainly used in cutting devices and emitted in the form of a mist into the environment during the operation of those devices. When oil components are eco-toxic, contamination of the environment occurs. New methodologies for the identification and determination of the petroleum oil base, which is very difficult to biodegrade, as well as the easily biodegradable ingredients of vegetable origin in the lubricating oils, are presented. The described procedures indicate in an indisputable way whether the oil contains the oil base originating from crude oil and whether it contains adequate enriching additives. The procedures also allow the assessment of the content of particular groups of constituents (µTLC) or the determination of the group composition (TLC-FID).

Application of high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet diode array detection and refractive index detection to the determination of class composition and to the analysis of gasoline.

A method of effective application of normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (NP-HPLC) with ultraviolet diode array detection (DAD) and refractive index detection (RID) for the determination of class composition of gasoline and its components, i.e. for the determination of content of alkenes, aromatic and saturated hydrocarbons in gasoline meeting modern quality standards, has been developed. An aminopropyl-bonded silica stationary phase was used along with n-hexane or n-heptane as the mobile phase. A DAD signal integrated over the 207-240 nm range was used to determine alkenes. This eliminates the necessity of separating alkenes from saturates, because the latter do not absorb UV radiation above 200 nm. The content of aromatic hydrocarbons is determined by means of a refractive index detector. Calibration was based on hydrocarbon type composition determined by the fluorescent indicator adsorption method, ASTM D1319. The results obtained by the developed method were found to be consistent with those obtained by fluorescent indicator adsorption or by a multidimensional GC method (PIONA) (ASTM D5443). The method can be applied to gasoline meeting recent quality standards, irrespective of refining technology used in the production of gasoline components, including gasoline with various contents of oxygenates. The developed method cannot be used to determine the hydrocarbon type composition of gasoline that contains as a component the so-called pyrocondensate, i.e. the fraction with a boiling point up to 220 degrees C, obtained through thermal pyrolysis of distillation residues of crude oil or coal and, consequently, does not meet the quality standards. The paper includes the procedure for identification of this type of gasoline.

Optimized conditions for hydrocarbon group type analysis of base oils by thin-layer chromatography-flame ionisation detection.

The results of research on the optimization of the thin-layer chromatography-flame ionisation detection for the determination of group composition of natural base oils, including separation of the aromatics into subgroups, are presented. Neutral base oils obtained in several steps of refining from vacuum distillation petroleum fractions are the most difficult to analyze by hydrocarbon group type analysis (HGTA) because of the high content of aliphatic fragments in their molecules. Factors affecting the accuracy and precision of the results were identified. The paper presents the analytical procedure, including two different calibration methods, as well as the results of studies on the reproducibility of HGTA of typical base oils of different viscosity classes under the optimized conditions. The same conditions were found suitable for HGTA of other high-boiling petroleum fractions by TLC with flame ionisation detection. The paper also introduces a new procedure for reproducible determination of polar fractions in base oils utilizing solid-phase extraction columns, and presents a corrected procedure for the determination of saturated compounds and aromatics (mono-, bi- and polycyclic) in base oils by column liquid chromatography.

Determination of the amount of wash amines and ammonium ion in desulfurization products of process gases and results of related studies.

This paper describes a method for the determination of the so-called wash amines and their degradation products, including ammonium ions, in process liquids and wastewater generated during the desulfurization of hydrogen sulfide gas in the process of crude oil refining and also reports the results of related studies. Ion-exchange liquid chromatography employing an inexpensive cation-exchange HPLC column and refractometric detection was used. The results obtained were compared with those obtained by potentiometric titration. Analytical characteristics and a description of the developed procedure are provided. Examples of the results of routine determinations of amines, their degradation products and ammonium ions in process liquids and wastewater are given.

Determination of carbon monoxide, methane and carbon dioxide in refinery hydrogen gases and air by gas chromatography.

This paper illustrates a method for determining trace amounts of CO, CH4 and CO2 with the detection limit of 0.15, 0.15 and 0.20 microg/l, respectively, in refinery hydrogen gases or in air. A simple modification of a gas chromatograph equipped with a flame-ionization detector is presented. A Porapak Q column, additionally connected with a short molecular sieve 5A packed column and a catalytic hydrogenation reactor on the Ni catalyst have been applied. The principle of the analytical method proposed is the separation of CO from O2 before the introduction of CO to the methanizer. The analytical procedure and examples of the results obtained have been presented. The modification applied makes it possible to use the GC instrument for other determinations, requiring utilization of the Porapak Q column and the flame-ionization detector. In such cases, the short molecular sieve 5A column and the methanizer can be by-passed.

Characteristics of volatile organic compounds emission profiles from hot road bitumens.

A procedure for the investigation and comparison of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emission profiles to the atmosphere from road bitumens with various degrees of oxidation is proposed. The procedure makes use of headspace analysis and gas chromatography with universal as well as selective detection, including gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The studies revealed that so-called vacuum residue, which is the main component of the charge, contains variable VOC concentrations, from trace to relatively high ones, depending on the extent of thermal cracking in the boiler of the vacuum distillation column. The VOC content in the oxidation product, so-called oxidized paving bitumen, is similarly varied. There are major differences in VOC emission profiles between vacuum residue and oxidized bitumens undergoing thermal cracking. The VOC content in oxidized bitumens, which did not undergo thermal cracking, increases with the degree of oxidation of bitumens. The studies revealed that the total VOC content increases from about 120 ppm for the raw vacuum residue to about 1900 ppm for so-called bitumen 35/50. The amount of volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) in the volatile fraction of fumes of oxidized bitumens increases with the degree of oxidation of bitumen and constitutes from 0.34% to 3.66% (w/w). The contribution of volatile nitrogen compounds (VNCs) to total VOC content remains constant for the investigated types of bitumens (from 0.16 to 0.28% (w/w) of total VOCs). The results of these studies can also find use during the selection of appropriate bitumen additives to minimize their malodorousness. The obtained data append the existing knowledge on VOC emission from oxidized bitumens. They should be included in reports on the environmental impact of facilities in which hot bitumen binders are used.