Validity of surface anthropometry to estimate upper-arm muscularity, including changes with body mass loss.

The differences among fatfold thicknesses, girths, and muscle plus bone cross-sectional area (M+B CSA) were examined at three sites along the upper arm (distal, mid, and proximal) by using surface anthropometry (study 1, n = 40) and x ray (study 2, n = 53). Changes in anthropometry and x ray were also evaluated in nine obese patients who reduced body mass by less than or equal to 20.5 kg over 32 wk. Weight reduction resulted in nonproportional changes at the three sites, including significant differences in M+B CSA. Thus, it would not be valid to consider the arm as a geometric cylinder. Although a one-time assessment of upper arm M+B CSA with surface anthropometry may be valid at any of the three sites, changes in M+B CSA measured at any site may result in an under- or overestimation of actual changes in M+B CSA.

Body frame size: validity of self-appraisal.

The validity of self-appraisal of body frame size was investigated in 72 college-aged subjects (39 males and 33 females). Validity was assessed by comparing self-appraised frame size versus the quantitative "HAT" formulation, which includes stature and two trunk diameters. Frame size was also assessed separately, for each subject by an expert rater. Results showed that the expert rater was in error 28% in comparison to the criterion frame size estimation, while 41% of the subjects were in error in assessing their own frame size, in comparison to the HAT criterion. The expert rater and self-appraisal differed by 33%. When analyzed by sex, it was revealed that the females were more inaccurate in assessing their frame size, in comparison to the criterion, than were the males. The consequences of inaccurate frame size assessment, in terms of ideal weight from the Metropolitan tables was discussed. Also, data were presented on a different sample of 103 females classified into percentage fat categories of less than 20%, 20 to 30%, and more than 30% which illustrated no statistical differences in skeletal dimensions, including frame size.

Regional adipose cellularity and reliability of adipose cell size determination.

Regional adipose cell size was assessed in 18 males ranging in age from 20 to 36 years. These measures were correlated to total body fat determined by hydrostatic weighing. Adipose samples were removed from the gluteal, abdominal, and subscapular regions using a needle aspiration technique. The tissue was incubated in collagenase to release individual cells that were immediately photographed under a microscope. To establish the reliability of adipose cell size assessment over time, fat biopsies were secured on 2 separate days. No significant difference was found for any region between day 1 and 2 adipose cell measures. Gluteal cell diameter (90.3 mu) was significantly larger than the abdominal (81.0 mu) and subscapular (78.6 mu) cell diameter (90.3 mu) was significantly larger than the abdominal (81.0 mu) and subscapular (78.6 mu) cell diameters. Total body fat correlated highest with gluteal cell size (r = 0.76) compared with the abdominal (r = 0.67) or subscapular (r = 0.70) regions. This study also examined the number of adipose cells required to subscapular (r = 0.70) regions. This study also examined the number of adipose cells required to obtain a reliable and representative mean value of adipose cell size. Using a sequential estimation analysis it was found that adipose cell diameters of the abdominal, gluteal, or subscapular regions can be reliably estimated with fewer than 100 cells.

Role of concentric force in limiting improvement in muscular strength.

We hypothesized that resistance training with combined eccentric and concentric actions, and concentric action only, should yield similar changes in muscular strength. Subjects in a free weight group trained three times a week for 12 wk with eccentric and concentric actions (FW, n = 16), a second group trained with concentric-only contractions using hydraulic resistance (HY; n = 12), and a control group did not train (n = 11). Training for FW and HY included five sets of supine bench press and upright squat at an intensity of 1-6 repetition maximum (RM) plus five supplementary exercises at 5-10 RM for a total of 20 sets per session for approximately 50 min. Testing at pre-, mid-, and posttraining included 1) 1 RM bench press and squat with and 2) without prestretch using free weights; 3)isokinetic peak force and power for bench press and squat at 5 degrees/s, and isotonic peak velocity and power for bench press with 20-kg load and squat with 70-kg load; 4) hydraulic peak bench press force and power, and peak knee extension torque and power at fast and slow speeds; and 5) surface anthropometry (fatfolds and girths to estimate upper arm and thigh volume and muscle area). Changes in overall fatness, muscularity, and muscle + bone cross-sectional area of the limbs did not differ between groups (P greater than 0.05). Improvements in free weight bench press and squat were similar (P greater than 0.05) in FW (approximately 24%) and HY (approximately 22%, P less than 0.05).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Ratio scaling of VO2max penalizes women with larger percent body fat, not lean body mass.

VO2max expressed in ml.BM-1.min-1 (BM = body mass) has been shown to unduly penalize heavier subjects and instead should be expressed as ml.BM-0.7.min-1. Such findings support the "theory of similarity" (TofS) that proposes the BM exponent should be 2/3 (0.67). The TofS, however, applies better to lean body mass (LBM) that is uninfluenced by fat mass. For young adults, the actual scaling exponent of LBM has yet to be satisfactorily determined. We used allometric scaling (AS) to scale VO2max by BM and LBM in 94 women (age = 27.4 +/- 6.7 yr, BM = 60.3 +/- 8.4 kg). Treadmill VO2max was assessed by indirect calorimetry and LBM was determined from hydrostatic weighing. AS yielded the following exponents (+/- 95% C.I.): BM: 0.61 +/- 0.27, and LBM: 1.04 +/- 0.26. We conclude that VO2max in ml.BM-1.min-1 indeed penalizes heavier women, but this penalty applies only to those who are heavier because of larger percent body fat, not LBM. If one takes the position that excess fatness is undesirable, then from a health and performance perspective, expressing VO2max in ml.BM-1.min-1 may provide an unbiased and useful expression of VO2max in young women.

Arm x-ray assessment of percent body fat in men and women.

The present experiment determined the validity of arm radiography for quantifying total body fat in young and older men and women. One hundred subjects were measured for 1) body density by underwater weighing with correction for residual air volume to estimate percent body fat and 2) horizontal right upper arm x-ray at KV 76, exposure time 1/30th s, 300 MA, and focal length 72 inches. Total radiation was 10 millirems (mR). The width of fat on the x-ray was measured at three cross-sectional sites (FAT,x-ray). Errors of measurement and measurement for reliability were assessed from duplicate x-rays and repeated measures on the same x-rays (r = 0.92-0.99). The equation to convert FAT,x-ray to individual estimates of percent fat is %Fat = FAT,x-ray/3F X k constant, where 3F = 3 square root wt,kg/ht,dm, and the k constant is a previously determined mean value. The correlation between Fat,x-ray and percent fat (density) was r = 0.89 (N = 100, Se = +/- 2.54); for 25 young men (ages 18-30), r = 0.90 (Se = +/- 1.84); for 25 older men (ages 30-40), r = 0.89 (Se = +/- 2.20); for young (N = 25) and older (N = 25) women, r = 0.85 (Se = +/- 2.08) and 0.87 (Se = +/- 2.61), respectively. These results demonstrate that the new, arm radiogrammetric method is a reliable and valid technique for assessment of body composition in men and women ages 18-40 yr.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Muscular development and lean body weight in body builders and weight lifters.

The extent of extreme muscular development in 39 males identified as body builders (N = 18), power weight lifters (N = 13), and Olympic weight lifters (N = 8) were studied. Body composition and anthropometric data, including calculations of pre-excess muscle body weight (scale weight minus excess muscle) were obtained. The lean body weight and percent fats of the subjects were: body builders = 74.6 kg, 9.3%; power weight lifters = 73.3 kg, 9.1%; and Olympic weight lifters = 68.2 kg, 10.8%. No group differences were present in frame size, percent fat, lean body weight, skinfolds, and diameter measurements. The only group differences were for the shoulders, chest, biceps relaxed and flexed, and forearm girths. In each case the body builders were larger. Calculations of excess muscle by the Behnke method revealed that the body builders had 15.6 kg excess muscle, power weight lifters 14.8 kg, and Olympic weight lifters 13.1 kg. Somatographic comparisons revealed only slight differences between the groups, while differences with reference man were substantial.

Evaluation of acute cardiorespiratory responses to hydraulic resistance exercise.

Accurate evaluation of the acute responses to resistance exercise training depends on the stability of the criterion measures. This is particularly true for maximal effort exercise where continuous "all-out" effort for each repetition is encouraged. The present study evaluated reliability of repetition number (repN), respiratory gas parameters (VO2, VCO2, VE), and heart rate (HR) for shoulder (SE), chest (CE), and leg (LE) exercise performed maximally on a single-unit, 3-station hydraulic resistance exercise machine (Hydra-Fitness, Belton, TX). On 2 separate days, 20 college men completed three 20-s bouts of SE, CE, and LE with a 20-s rest between bouts and 5 min between exercise modes. There were no significant differences between bouts or test days for repN, gas measures, or HR. Subjects performed 17, 19, and 21 reps during SE, LE, and CE. VO2 was 1.7 l . min-1 (24.3 ml . kg-1 . min-1) for SE, 1.87 l . min-1 (25.5 ml . kg-1 . min-1) for CE, and 2.1 l . min-1 (28.6 ml . kg-1 . min-1) for LE. These values, averaged, represented 52.8% of the max VO2 determined on a continuous cycle ergometer test. The corresponding HR's during hydraulic exercise averaged 84.6% of HR max. Test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from r = .67 to .87 for repN, r = .41 to .83 for gas measures, and r = .72 to .89 for HR.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Multivariate allometric scaling of men's world indoor rowing championship performance.

The World Indoor Rowing Championship (WIRC) is based on the time (T) to row a simulated 2500 m on a rowing ergometer. In the WIRC there are separate age categories but only two weight classes: light and heavyweight, thus penalizing those just heavier and those significantly lighter than the cut-off weight. Multivariate allometric scaling (MAS) provides an expression of performance free of the confounding effect of more than one scaling variable. We used MAS to scale T by height (H) and age (A) to create a new index of rowing performance, T*H(-a)*A(-b). Subjects were 148 male competitors from the 1995 WIRC. MAS indicated that T*H*A(-0.06) expresses T free of the confounding effect of H and A. We also scaled T only by H on those subjects, A < 40, (N = 109). Results showed that T*H is an optimal and particularly feasible scaling of T. Use of either convention dramatically changed race results. In conclusion, we recommend use of either the T.H (17 < or = A < or = 39) or T*H*A(-0.06) conventions to adjust WIRC performance in adult males.

The effects of hydraulic resistance strength training in pre-pubertal males.

In order to examine the effectiveness and safety of hydraulic resistance strength training in young males, 26 pre-pubertal males (mean age = 8.2 +/- 1.3 yr) completed a 14-wk strength training study. Subjects were evaluated before and after the 14-wk experimental period for pubertal state (Tanner's sexual maturity rating, serum testosterone, and serum dihydroepiandrosterone sulfate). Effectiveness of the strength training program was determined by measuring pre-post differences in: isokinetic strength for flexion and extension at the knee and elbow joints at two speeds (30 degrees and 90 degrees X s-1) (KIN COM, Chattecx, Inc., Chattanooga, TN), flexibility, standing long jump, vertical jump, body composition parameters, maximal oxygen consumption, and creatinine phosphokinase. Safety of strength training was assessed by biphasic musculoskeletal scintigraphy before and after the program and by physician evaluation of complaints by subjects. Strength training subjects (N = 16) participated in a 45 min/session, 3 session/wk, 14-wk supervised strength training program with an attendance rate of 91.5%. Participants performed concentric work using hydraulic resistance equipment (Hydra-Fitness Industries, Belton, TX). Eccentric work was not performed. Control subjects (N = 10) did not strength train but did participate in sport activities and activities of daily living. Results indicated that strength training subjects increased isokinetic strength as a result of strength training (average concentric work/repetition increases by 18.5 to 36.6% for the eight motions tested; torque scores over the first 90% of the range of motion increases by 13.1 to 45.1% for the eight motions tested). These changes were significantly greater than changes seen in the control group (P less than 0.05). Strength training subjects also demonstrated significant improvements (as compared to control subjects) in vertical jump (+10.4%), flexibility (+8.4%), and maximal oxygen consumption [+19.4% (l X min-1), +13.8% (ml X kg X min-1)] after the experimental period. Musculoskeletal scintigraphy revealed no evidence of damage to epiphyses, bone, or muscle as a result of strength training. Only one strength training-related injury was reported (left shoulder pain, 3 strength training sessions missed). In contrast, six strength training subjects sustained injuries during activities of daily living, resulting in 47 missed strength training sessions. It was concluded that, in the short term, supervised concentric strength training using hydraulic resistance equipment is safe and effective in pre-pubertal boys.

Routine anthropometry and arm radiography in assessment of nutritional status: its potential.

Elementary anthropometric and radiographic techniques, carefully executed and routinely employed in definitive surveys of healthy persons, are of potential value in assessment of patients, and provide the following: 1. Formulas to compute mean "ideal body weights" of young adults from stature (W = kh1.7). 2. A "unit size-weight" index (uS-W) with a mean value of 100 or nearly identical to 100 for all mean "ideal weights" relative to stature. 3. The distribution of values of the uS-W index for 80 and 90% of the population of young adults around the mean. 4. Conversion of body girths and stature to ponderal equivalents such that component A reflects fatness (if present) and component B, leanness and muscularity. 5. Conversion of skeletal diameters and stature to a relative "frame" size weight, designated component C, and employed as a "reference weight" (Ref W) for the calculation of lean body weight (LBW) in the male, and "minimal weight" as well as LBW in the female. 6. Conversion of skinfold thickness to estimates of body fat by means of a surface area formulation where: Weight of fat = SA x skinfold widths x k(fat). 7. The introduction of comprehensive arm radiography to reveal presumptive estimates of body fat from SA and of the amount of bone and muscle in the arm to LBW. 8. The visualization of body shape in the somatogram, and the value of photography under strictly controlled conditions.

Transcutaneous electrical muscle stimulation does not alter regional arm adiposity and muscularity.

The present study evaluated the effects of an electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) training protocol claimed to elicit site-specific fat reduction and muscle hypertrophy. The protocol includes 6 weeks (3 sessions/week, 10 contractions/session) of high frequency (2500 Hz) transcutaneous EMS training on upper arm muscle and fat tissue. Two groups of 10 subjects were stimulated either on the dominant biceps brachii (B) or triceps brachii (T). The non-dominant arm served as a control. Post-training measures of upper arm fat and muscle tissue evaluated with girths, skinfolds, and ultrasound measures of fat did not change following EMS training of the treatment and control arms (p > 0.05). Upper arm x-ray measurements to estimate total upper arm volume, muscle plus bone volume, and fat volume also did not change significantly for groups B and T following training (p > 0.05). The results thus indicate no selective upper arm muscle hypertrophy or site-specific fat reduction with high frequency EMS training of healthy muscle. Am. J Hum. Biol. 10:317-326, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Strength training for prepubescent males: is it safe?

This study examined the safety of one type of strength training for prepubescent males. Eighteen males (average age, 8.3 +/- 1.2 years) participated in a 45 min/session, three session/week, 14 week supervised strength training program with an attendance rate of 91.5%. Concentric work was done almost exclusively. KinCom analysis showed significant strength gain in this group (P less than 0.05), while an age, sex, and activity matched control group did not gain strength. Safety was evaluated by injury surveillance, blood pressure and heart rate monitoring, scintigraphy, and creatine phosphokinase measurement. Effects on growth and development, flexibility, and motor performance were also investigated, as these are factors with an impact on sports injury occurrence. Results showed that in the short term, supervised concentric strength training results in a low injury rate and does not adversely affect bone, muscle, or epiphyses; nor does it adversely affect growth, development, flexibility, or motor performance. As the safety question is multifaceted, this should not lead to the conclusion that strength training for prepubescents is uniformly safe. Further research is needed.

Measurement of isokinetic strength prepubertal males*.

* Supported in part by a grant from Hydra-Fitness Industries, Belton, TX. Twenty-nine prepubertal males ( age = 8.2 +/- 1.3 years) were evaluated for concentric isokinetic strength at the knee, shoulder, and elbow joints, [at the dominant (D) and nondominant (ND) sides]. At each joint, flexion (F) was compared with extension (E) at two speeds of 30 degrees /sec (30) versus 90 degrees /sec (90) over each 10% of the range of motion (ROM). Reliability was estimated between identical motions at the D versus ND side. Results for work at the knee joint indicated slightly higher work output at the ND side (23.5 versus 25.0 joules for D versus ND), significantly higher work output for extension compared to flexion (19.0 versus 29.2 joules for F versus E) and for the slower compared to the faster speed (26.2 versus 21.9 joules for 30 versus 90). At the shoulder joint, extension resulted in significantly greater work compared to flexion (14.2 versus 22.0 joules for F versus E) and the slower speed was associated with significantly greater work (1 9.7 versus 16.7 joules for 30 versus 90). At the elbow joint, the only significant difference observed for work occurred for speed, with the faster speed resulting in greater work (10.8 versus 9.5 joules for 30 versus 90). Analysis for torque scores at each of the three joints revealed that extension resulted in greater torque than flexion, 30 degrees /sec resulted in greater torque than 90 O/sec and that peak torque scores occurred during the first 50% of ROM. Correlations to estimate reliability exceeded r = 0.70 for comparisons of torque and work scores for D versus ND. Age, height, and weight correlated r = 0.50 < r < 0.90 with peak torque during each of the motions. It was concluded that prepubertal males have similar patterns of concentric isokinetic strength measured at the knee, shoulder, and elbow joints compared to adults, because strength was greater during E versus F, for slower versus faster speeds, and during the initial phase of ROM.J Ortho Sports Phys Ther 1988;9(10):345-351.

Effects of different modes of strength training on body composition and anthropometry.

This article deals with the effects of conventional strength training and circuit resistance training on changes in body composition parameters. Recent data are provided on the technique of arm radiography to quantify changes in arm muscle and fat following strength development with hydraulic resistance exercise equipment.

The body composition profile. Techniques of measurement and applications.

The body composition profile of an athlete permits a detailed analysis of the body's major structural components--muscle mass, fat, and bone. This article concentrates on two major areas. One is techniques for assessing body composition, including hydrostatic weighing, anthropometry, ultrasound, and radiographs. The other is applications of measurement. The authors also focus on the use of computer technology in the body profile analysis.

Effects of simultaneous training for strength and endurance on upper and lower body strength and running performance.

This study examined simultaneous training for strength and endurance during a 13-week, 3-day a week program of hydraulic resistive circuit training and running. Eighteen college males (U.S. Army ROTC) were placed into low resistance (LR; n = 10) or high resistance (HR; n = 8) groups, and 10 college males were controls and did not train. There were 20 exercise stations (7 upper and lower body, and 6 supplementary). LR and HR performed 2 circuits with a work/rest ratio of 20 to 40 s during the 40 min workout. LR trained at two low resistances (approximately 100 cm.s-1), while HR trained at a higher resistance (approximately 50 cm.s-1). Following the workout, subjects ran 2 miles. Pre and post tests included strength, physical fitness, and anthropometry. Strength was assessed with (1) hydraulic resistance dynamometry for 4 exercises at 2 speeds using a computerized dynamometer (Hydra-Fitness, Belton, TX); (2) isokinetic and isotonic upright squat and supine bench press using the Ariel Exerciser (Trabuco Canyon, CA); (3) concentric and eccentric arm flexion/extension at 60 and 120 degrees.s-1 on the Biodex dynamometer (Shirley, NY), and (4) 1-RM free weight concentric and eccentric arm flexion and extension. The fitness tests included 2-mile run, sit-ups, and push-ups. Anthropometry included 3 fatfolds, 6 girths, and arm and leg volume. There were no significant changes in body composition or interactions between the fitness test measures and the 2 training groups (p greater than 0.05). Improvements averaged 15% (run time), 30% (push-ups), and 19% (sit-ups; p less than 0.05). Significant improvements also occurred in 3 of 8 measures for hydraulic testing (overall change 8.8%), in 3 of 4 1-RM tests (9.4%), and in 2 of 8 Biodex tests (6%), but no significant changes for isokinetic and isotonic squat and bench press (1.9%). The change in overall strength averaged 6.5% compared to 16% in a prior study that used hydraulic resistive training without concomitant running. We conclude that gains in strength were somewhat compromised by the simultaneous run training, and that improvements in strength and run performance were independent of LR and HR training intensity.

Exercise and Serum Androgens in Women.

In brief: Little information exists about the role of androgens in women relative to exercise, particularly resistance exercise. This study examines (1) the effect of a ten-week hydraulic resistance exercise program on serum androgen levels, strength, and lean body weight and (2) the relationship of serum androgen levels to strength and lean body weight before and after the ten-week program. Thirteen experimental and five control subjects, all college women, participated. Training did not result in significant increases in androgen hormones, although there were significant gains in strength. In addition, no significant correlations were observed between testosterone, androstenedione, or sex hormone-binding globulin and pretraining and delta values of strength or lean body weight (r <.49).