Language proficiency and ethnic-racial orientation among Latine mother-adolescent dyads.

Language proficiencies have implications for how parents and children can communicate effectively and how culture and heritage can be transferred across generations. Previous research has sought to understand the relationship between parent language (mainstream, heritage) proficiencies and the ethnic-racial orientation of their children, though prior studies have not investigated the relationship between child language proficiencies and parent ethnic-racial orientation. This study examined the actor-partner effects of Latine mother-child dyads (N = 175; youth mean age = 12.86 years) regarding their proficiencies in English and Spanish and their Latine and White orientations. Our results revealed that youth Spanish language proficiency was positively linked to youth White orientation, and youth English proficiency was also positively associated with youth White orientation but only in instances when youth-reported acculturation conflict was lower or average. There were two partner effects observed, with youth English proficiency positively relating to mother's White orientation and mothers' Spanish proficiency being negatively related to youth White orientation. Regarding Latine orientation, both English and Spanish were positively related to greater Latine orientation for both mothers and their children. However, at higher levels of mother-reported acculturation conflict, higher mother English proficiency was related to lower youth Latine orientation. Overall, language proficiencies for Latine mothers and their children contribute to the development of bicultural orientations, though varying degrees of acculturation conflict can have differential impacts on these linkages.

Ethnic-racial identity and ethnic-racial socialization competency: How minoritized parents "walk the talk".

OBJECTIVES: Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) has important implications for individual psychosocial functioning as well as familial processes. For example, parents' ERI can shape children's developmental contexts through ethnic-racial socialization (ERS). Yet, existing research has tended to focus on the content or frequency of socialization messages themselves rather than on internal factors like socialization competence. Such competence, as reflected through confidence, skills, and stress, represents critical dimensions that permeate the socialization process and can impact the delivery of messages. The present study examines whether parents' ERI (i.e., private regard, centrality, exploration) is related to perceptions of their socialization competence. METHOD: Data from 203 Black, 194 Asian American, and 188 Latinx parents (N = 585, Mage = 44.46 years, SD = 9.14, 59.70% mothers) of adolescents between the ages of 10-18 were collected via Qualtrics panels. RESULTS: Across all parents, private regard, centrality, and ethnic-racial exploration were positively associated with perceived confidence and skills in engaging in ERS. Regard was additionally associated with lower socialization stress. CONCLUSIONS: The results point to consistent benefits of ERI in helping parents navigate ERS, furthering the understanding of ERI's developmental implications through parents' comfort with and ability to "walk the talk" with their children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Talking through the tough: Identifying facilitating factors to preparation for bias and racial-ethnic discrimination conversations among families from minoritized ethnic-racial groups.

Parent-child conversations about race-related issues serve a protective function for minoritized families and are needed to help children of color thrive in the United States (Hughes et al., Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 51, 2016 and 1). Despite the difficulties that parents experience in having such conversations to prepare youth to cope with discrimination (Priest et al., International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 43, 2014 and 139), parents are actively engaging in these courageous conversations with the aim of protecting their youth. In order to fully understand and support parents having these conversations, our study sought to identify conversation facilitators (i.e., strategies currently being implemented and viewed as successful and/or viewed as potentially helpful) to engage in preparation for bias and racial-ethnic discrimination conversations from the perspective of parents and youth. The current qualitative study draws upon focus group data collected from parents and youth from African American, Chinese American, Mexican American, and Indian American (South Asian) families (N = 138 individuals; 30 focus groups). Reflections were transcribed and coded by a racially and ethnically diverse research team using an inductive thematic analysis approach (Braun & Clarke, Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 2006 and 77). Shared and unique facilitators to engaging in preparation for bias and racial-ethnic discrimination conversations were identified across the four racial-ethnic groups. Shared facilitators broadly centered on parent-youth relationship quality, conversation characteristics, and quality, and conversation content and relevance. Unique facilitators broadly centered on communication style and needs and conversation content. Shared and unique facilitators warrant more attention to best support minoritized families. The use of findings in developing interventions to support marginalized parents, youth, and families is addressed.

The markings of linked fate among Asian Americans and Latinxs.

OBJECTIVE: Linked fate, or the degree to which individuals feel that their lives are tied to other group members' lives, can mobilize collective action and strengthen commonalities. Yet, linked fate remains underresearched, particularly among Asian Americans and Latinxs. METHOD: Using the 2016 Collaborative Multiracial Postelection Survey, the present study draws on García Coll et al.'s (1996) integrative model to examine associations between three domains of linked fate (immigrant, minority, coethnic) and demographic and structural factors (age, gender, nativity, education, income, language, skin color, neighborhood diversity, social stratification). RESULTS: Education, discrimination, and feeling excluded are positively related to immigrant, minority, and coethnic-linked fate; age is negatively related. Income and nativity were not significant predictors. CONCLUSIONS: Implications for fostering linked fate and coalition building within and across Asians and Latinxs are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Differentiating Pathways between Ethnic-Racial Identity and Critical Consciousness.

Critical consciousness is one way in which minoritized youth can resist oppression and move towards sociopolitical change, but little is known about how it evolves alongside developmentally-relevant assets such as ethnic-racial identity. Among 367 ethnically-racially diverse youth (Mage = 15.85, 68.9% female, 85% U.S-born), links between multiple identity constructs (oppressed minority identity, centrality, public regard) and critical consciousness (reflection, motivation, action) were examined using structural equation modeling. Oppressed minority ideology and centrality were associated with more reflection, more motivation, but less critical action. In contrast, public regard was associated with less reflection, less motivation, but more action. The results suggest that different identity processes should be cultivated to help promote these largely independent dimensions of critical consciousness. Further implications of the findings and ideas for future research are discussed.

Beliefs about Expressing Love to Adolescents among Ethnically and Economically Diverse Mothers.

Parental love promotes positive developmental outcomes among adolescents, yet knowledge about how context might influence the behaviors parents deem as loving is limited. This study examined mothers' beliefs about expressing love to adolescent children in diverse ethnic and socioeconomic groups. Participants were 60 European American, 63 African American, and 60 Latina mothers. Household income (the indicator of socioeconomic status) varied within each ethnic group. Beliefs about the most important ways to express love differed by ethnicity more so than income. Latina mothers were more likely than other mothers to emphasize behaviors that involve family togetherness and practical help and guidance, and less likely to emphasize verbal affection or promoting independence. Mothers from all groups believed that "correction and discipline" was an important expression of love. The findings contribute to an ecologically sensitive understanding of parenting during adolescence, highlighting similarities as well as differences across ethnic and income groups.

Correlates of Ethnicity-related Dating Preferences among Asian American Adolescents across the High School Years.

Ethnicity-related dating preferences among Asian American adolescents and the links between preferences (i.e., for a same-ethnic dating partner) and ethnic identity centrality and regard, American identity centrality and regard, parent-adolescent closeness, and perceptions of discrimination were investigated. Data from 175 self-identified Asian American high school students were collected yearly for four consecutive years. Higher levels of ethnic identity centrality and regard and parent-adolescent closeness averaged across four years were associated with preferring a same-ethnic partner. Moreover, foreign-born adolescents were less likely to prefer a same-ethnic partner when they encountered a higher than average level of discrimination on any given year. Results highlight variability in the developmental and individual-level factors that shape how adolescents navigate their dating relationships.

Discrimination, Skin Color Satisfaction, and Adjustment among Latinx American Youth.

Race-related biases and discrimination and easily observable race-related characteristics, such as skin color, appear to go hand and hand, but it remains unclear how these factors work together to shape youth development. The current study addresses this gap by investigating skin color satisfaction as a mediator between perceptions of discrimination and adjustment. Data are from a cross-sectional sample of Latinx youth (N = 175; Mage = 12.86; 51.4% female; 86.9% US-born) who completed measures of foreigner-based objectification, peer discrimination, adult discrimination, self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and the importance or value attributed to academic success. Evidence of significant indirect effects of skin color satisfaction in the links between foreigner-based objectification and self-esteem as well as academic importance was found. Skin color satisfaction did not mediate links between either peer or adult discrimination and self-esteem, depression, and academic importance. The results provide support that being perceived as a foreigner has negative implications for Latinx youth adjustment through skin color satisfaction. The present study expands understanding of how different forms of differential treatment may affect minoritized youth. Implications and future research ideas are discussed.

Discrimination, the Model Minority Stereotype, and Peer Relationships Across the High School Years.

Ethnic stereotyping can profoundly influence youth adjustment; however, little work has addressed how the model minority stereotype may affect adolescent social adjustment. This study examined Asian American adolescents' peer relationships over time and how perceived discrimination and model minority stereotyping are associated with positive (support) and negative (criticism) qualities in these relationships. Multi-wave survey data were collected from 175 Asian adolescents in the Southeast over three time points. Participants were 60% female (freshmen Mage = 14.42 years, SD = 0.64 and sophomores Mage = 15.56 years, SD = 0.74). They were 75% US-born and represented various heritage groups (e.g., Hmong, East/Southeast Asian, South Asian). Within-person, year-to-year associations between variables were explored. Criticism from White and other-ethnic peers decreased over time. Discrimination was associated with higher criticism over time, and links between model minority stereotyping and support were found. With White peers, when stereotyping experiences increased, both positive and negative relationship qualities increased. Experiences of stereotyping and discrimination interacted, exacerbating each other with regard to criticism. The discussion compares model minority stereotyping and discrimination, both likely to create strained relationships.

Latent Profiles of Discrimination and Socialization Predicting Ethnic Identity and Well-Being Among Asian American Adolescents.

Ethnic identity is rooted in sociocultural processes, but little is known about how social interactions predict its longitudinal changes. Using data from 154 Asian American adolescents, latent profile analysis derived four typologies based on unfair treatment (i.e., discrimination, model minority stereotyping) and ethnic socialization (i.e., cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust): Low Cultural Salience, High Cultural Salience with Marginalization, Culturally Prepared with Low Mistrust, and High Mistrust/Discrimination. Few gender or generational differences in profile membership were found. Positive outcomes were linked to adolescents attuned to both positive and negative experiences, Culturally Prepared with Low Mistrust, who reported increases in ethnic belonging and decreases in negative emotions. The implications for identity formation and adjustment are discussed.

Foreigner objectification, English proficiency, and adjustment among youth and mothers from Latinx American backgrounds.

OBJECTIVES: Understanding the experience of foreigner objectification is relevant given the possibility of ethnocentrism, xenophobia, and mistrust of immigrants in the United States. The present study examines main and interactive effects of objectification and English proficiency on developmental outcomes among immigrant mothers and children. METHOD: Our study includes 173 youth from Latinx backgrounds (52% female, Mage = 12.86 years, SD = .68; 87% United States-born) and their mothers (Mage = 38.26 SD = 5.65; all foreign-born) from emerging immigrant contexts. RESULTS: Bivariate and regression analyses suggest that lower English proficiency was associated with more objectification for youth; whereas higher English proficiency was associated with more objectification for mothers. For youth only, English proficiency was positively correlated with American identity. For both parents and youth, foreigner objectification was linked with negative psychological outcomes (e.g., mothers' depressive symptoms, youths' low self-esteem). CONCLUSIONS: Being subjected to assumptions that challenge individuals' social status can be psychologically harmful. Nuanced developmental variation, and implications regarding the dual role of objectification and English proficiency are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Ethnic-racial socialization in Latino families: The influence of mothers' socialization practices on adolescent private regard, familism, and perceived ethnic-racial discrimination.

OBJECTIVES: Cultural value endorsement and ethnic-racial identity promote Latino/a adolescent positive adaptation and mitigate the negative impacts of perceived ethnic-racial discrimination. This study explored the intergenerational process of how adolescents develop these cultural characteristics in concert with their experiences of discrimination, focusing on the role of youth-reported maternal ethnic-racial socialization processes. METHOD: Participants included 175 Latino/a adolescent-mother dyads recruited from the 7th and 8th grades in an understudied emerging immigrant destination. We tested the effects of maternal cultural characteristics (i.e., familism, private regard, and perceived discrimination) on the same adolescent outcomes through youth-reported maternal ethnic-racial socialization practices (i.e., cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, and familism socialization, a novel construct introduced in this study). RESULTS: Three significant indirect pathways were identified. Higher maternal private regard was associated with both higher youth familism and higher youth private regard through greater youth-reported familism socialization, and higher maternal private regard was associated with more perceived youth discrimination through greater youth-reported preparation for bias. CONCLUSION: Our results highlight maternal private regard as particularly important for understanding how youth perceptions of socialization processes encourage the development of adolescent cultural characteristics and the benefit of using specific assessment tools, such as a familism socialization measure, to identify how ethnic-racial socialization processes serve as intergenerational links. Directions for future research and implications for intervention are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Developmental Change and Correlates of Autonomy in Asian American Adolescents.

Although establishing a sense of autonomy has been long thought to be a fundamental developmental task, there are still gaps in literature in terms of how autonomy changes over time and interacts with other important factors in adolescents' lives. In the present study, 158 (60% female; 74% second generation) Asian Americans were followed throughout high school and surveyed for self-reported autonomy, parent-child closeness, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms each year. Hierarchical linear modeling investigated whether autonomy changed over time, whether yearly changes in autonomy were related to changes in parent-child closeness, and whether both constructs were associated with adjustment. The results indicated that, although autonomy did not linearly increase over the high school years, intra-individual increases in autonomy were associated with increases in father-child closeness. Effects of mother-child closeness were similar, but only approached statistical significance. Autonomy and closeness to mother were each positively associated with self-esteem, and their interactive effect on depressive symptoms was also significant, which suggests that both autonomy and relatedness with mother are important for Asian American adolescents' psychological well-being.

Coping and Culture: The Protective Effects of Shift-&-Persist and Ethnic-Racial Identity on Depressive Symptoms in Latinx Youth.

Shift-&-persist is a coping strategy that has been shown to lead to positive health outcomes in low-SES youth but has not yet been examined with respect to psychological health. This study tests whether the shift-&-persist coping strategy works in tandem with ethnic-racial identity to protect against depressive symptoms in the face of two uncontrollable stressors: economic hardship and peer discrimination. In a sample of 175 Latinx youth (51.4% female; Mage = 12.9), shift-&-persist buffered the positive relation between economic hardship and depressive symptoms. In terms of peer discrimination, among youth who reported little use of shift and persist, discrimination was related to higher depressive symptoms, whereas youth who reported higher amounts of shift and persist (at and above the mean) were protected and did not evidence this association. However, among youth with high ethnic-racial identity, shift-&-persist failed to protect against the deleterious association between peer discrimination and depressive symptoms. These findings suggest that shift-&-persist is protective for Latinx youth, although the context in which it is protective changes based on the racialized/non-racialized nature of the stressor.

The Intersection of Racial-Ethnic Socialization and Adolescence: A Closer Examination at Stage-Salient Issues.

The literature on parental racial-ethnic socialization (RES) has established the multiple protective effects of RES on developmental outcomes. Although the majority of this literature examines RES processes in adolescence, with the exception of identity processes this literature has not specifically tackled how these messages intersect with specific adolescent developmental processes. We review the literature on RES processes in non-White adolescents with a focus on the parent-adolescent relationship, risk-taking behaviors, romantic relationships, and different contexts (i.e., extracurricular, work, and social media settings). We propose that developmental science needs to account for how parental RES may not only change in adolescence, but in particular responds to the perceived risks associated with this developmental period and interacts with normative developmental tasks and milestones.

Protective and Promotive Effects of Latino Early Adolescents' Cultural Assets Against Multiple Types of Discrimination.

Given adversity associated with discrimination, it is important to identify culturally relevant factors that may protect against its harmful effects. Using latent variable interactions, this study examined the moderating effects of cultural assets on the association between multiple types of discrimination and adolescents' adjustment. Participants included 174 seventh- and eighth-grade Latino adolescents (51% girls); majority were of Mexican origin. Peer discrimination was associated with higher internalizing symptoms, whereas cultural assets predicted higher academic motivation above and beyond racial-ethnic discrimination, demonstrating a promotive effect. Adolescents' Latino cultural assets also protected against higher levels of externalizing symptoms in the context of high peer discrimination and foreigner objectification. The discussion focuses on the conceptual and applied implications of these findings.

Longitudinal profiles of eudaimonic well-being in Asian American adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: The current study explores whether a well-known model (i.e., Ryff's, 1989, conceptualization of psychological functioning) can be used to examine patterns of eudaimonic well-being among Asian Americans, who are rarely the focus of systematic investigations in positive psychology. METHOD: Hidden Markov modeling, a form of latent transition analysis, was used to analyze longitudinal data from adolescents (N = 180; 49% female; 75% U.S.-born). RESULTS: After establishing measurement validity, analyses revealed 4 profiles of well-being: Flourishing (consistently high on all well-being dimensions), Functioning (consistently moderate), Hindered (consistently low), and Self-Driven Success (high on most dimensions, but moderate levels of positive relationships). The Functioning profile was the most prevalent, followed by relatively even distributions of the remaining profiles. Profiles substantially shifted from year to year, with the Functioning and Hindered groups exhibiting the most stability. Profiles reflecting more positive well-being (i.e., Flourishing, Self-Driven) were associated with ethnic and American centrality and regard, and interactive effects suggest compounding benefits of these identities. CONCLUSIONS: Psychological models of well-being appear malleable, and cultural identity can contribute to such fluctuations. Results also support the utility of a profile approach to continue examining qualities of positive well-being among Asian American youth. (PsycINFO Database Record

Identifying as American among Adolescents from Asian Backgrounds.

An important aspect of identity development requires adolescents to consider and select the cultural label or labels that best fit with their conception of who they are. Yet, little is known about the longitudinal development of such labeling preferencs and their possible links with adjustment. Using longitudinal data from 180 Asian Americans (60% female; 74% U.S.-born), intra-individual and group-level changes in adolescents' American label use were tracked. Over time, 48% chose an American label as their "best-fitting" label and 42% chose an American label at least once, but did not include an American label during at least one other time point. American label use was not associated with continuous measures of American identity, but the use of American labels was linked with lower levels of ethnic identity. American identity, whether indicated by label use or continuous scale scores, was generally linked with positive psychological and academic adjustment, with some effects of label use moderated by gender and generational status. Developmental implications of American cultural labels as markers of adolescent identity and broader adjustment are discussed.

Acculturation Conflict, Cultural Parenting Self-Efficacy, and Perceived Parenting Competence in Asian American and Latino/a Families.

Parents from immigrant backgrounds must deal with normative parenting demands as well as unique challenges associated with acculturation processes. The current study examines the independent and interactive influences of acculturation conflict and cultural parenting self-efficacy (PSE; e.g., parents' confidence in instilling heritage, American, and bicultural values in their children) on perceptions of general parenting competence. Using data from 58 Asian American and 153 Latin American parents of children in grades 6-12, ethnic differences were also explored. Results suggest that lower acculturation conflict is associated with higher perceptions of general parenting competence for both Asian and Latin American parents. Higher cultural PSE is associated with higher perceived general parenting competence for Latino/a parents only. One significant interaction was found, and only for Asian Americans, whereby the negative association between acculturation conflict and perceptions of parenting competence was weaker for those who felt efficacious in transmitting heritage messages. Results are discussed in light of clinical implications and the need for further recognition and study of culturally relevant factors and frameworks among families from immigrant backgrounds.

Placing Asian American Child Development Within Historical Context.

This article discusses influences of historical time and place on the development of children and youth of Asian descent in the U.S. Chinese, Indian, Hmong, and Filipino American experiences illustrate how history has defined race and racial stereotypes, determined cultural and community contexts, established pre-/postmigration circumstances, and influenced oppression and discrimination. Cross-cutting issues as applied to other ethnicities are discussed. By recognizing history's reach on child development, this article intends to inspire others to acknowledge and consider historical influences in their work. It also lays a foundation for the two ensuing articles within this Special Section, which present a novel conceptual framework (Mistry et al., this volume) and methodological recommendations (Yoshikawa, Mistry, & Wang, this volume) for research.