Limited linkages of aboveground and belowground phenology: A study in grape.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Plant phenology influences resource utilization, carbon fluxes, and interspecific interactions. Although controls on aboveground phenology have been studied to some degree, controls on root phenology are exceptionally poorly understood. METHODS: We used minirhizotrons to examine the timing of grape root production over 5 yr in Fredonia, New York, USA, in a humid continental climate; and over 3 yr in Oakville, California, USA, in a Mediterranean climate. We used data from previous experiments to examine the relationship of root phenology with aboveground phenology. We compared interannual variability in root and shoot growth and determined the influence of abiotic factors on the timing of root initiation, peak root standing crop, peak root growth rate, and cessation of root growth. KEY RESULTS: Root phenology was not tightly coupled with aboveground phenological periods. Both sites typically had one yearly root flush and high interannual variability in root growth. Root phenology was more variable in California than in New York. In this and other published studies, interannual variation in root phenology was greater than variation in aboveground phenology. The three phenological phases of root growth-root initiation, peak root growth, and root cessation-were related to different suites of abiotic factors. CONCLUSIONS: Root phenology is highly variable among years. Analysis of potential controlling factors over several years suggest that belowground phenological phases should be analyzed separately from each other. If aboveground grape phenology responds differently than belowground phenology to changes in air temperature, global warming may further uncouple the timing of aboveground and belowground growth.

Biodiversity ensures plant-pollinator phenological synchrony against climate change.

Climate change has the potential to alter the phenological synchrony between interacting mutualists, such as plants and their pollinators. However, high levels of biodiversity might buffer the negative effects of species-specific phenological shifts and maintain synchrony at the community level, as predicted by the biodiversity insurance hypothesis. Here, we explore how biodiversity might enhance and stabilise phenological synchrony between a valuable crop, apple and its native pollinators. We combine 46 years of data on apple flowering phenology with historical records of bee pollinators over the same period. When the key apple pollinators are considered altogether, we found extensive synchrony between bee activity and apple peak bloom due to complementarity among bee species' activity periods, and also a stable trend over time due to differential responses to warming climate among bee species. A simulation model confirms that high biodiversity levels can ensure plant-pollinator phenological synchrony and thus pollination function.

Trunk Water Potential Measured with Microtensiometers for Managing Water Stress in "Gala" Apple Trees.

The weather variations around the world are already having a profound impact on agricultural production. This impacts apple production and the quality of the product. Through agricultural precision, growers attempt to optimize both yield and fruit size and quality. Two experiments were conducted using field-grown "Gala" apple trees in Geneva, NY, USA, in 2021 and 2022. Mature apple trees (Malus × domestica Borkh. cv. Ultima "Gala") grafted onto G.11 rootstock planted in 2015 were used for the experiment. Our goal was to establish a relationship between stem water potential (Ψtrunk), which was continuously measured using microtensiometers, and the growth rate of apple fruits, measured continuously using dendrometers throughout the growing season. The second objective was to develop thresholds for Ψtrunk to determine when to irrigate apple trees. The economic impacts of different irrigation regimes were evaluated. Three different water regimes were compared (full irrigation, rainfed and rain exclusion to induce water stress). Trees subjected the rain-exclusion treatment were not irrigated during the whole season, except in the spring (April and May; 126 mm in 2021 and 100 mm in 2022); that is, these trees did not receive water during June, July, August and half of September. Trees subjected to the rainfed treatment received only rainwater (515 mm in 2021 and 382 mm in 2022). The fully irrigated trees received rain but were also irrigated by drip irrigation (515 mm in 2021 and 565 mm in 2022). Moreover, all trees received the same amount of water out of season in autumn and winter (245 mm in 2021 and 283 mm in 2022). The microtensiometer sensors detected differences in Ψtrunk among our treatments over the entire growing season. In both years, experimental trees with the same trunk cross-section area (TCSA) were selected (23-25 cm-2 TCSA), and crop load was adjusted to 7 fruits·cm-2 TCSA in 2021 and 8.5 fruits·cm-2 TCSA in 2022. However, the irrigated trees showed the highest fruit growth rates and final fruit weight (157 g and 70 mm), followed by the rainfed only treatment (132 g and 66 mm), while the rain-exclusion treatment had the lowest fruit growth rate and final fruit size (107 g and 61 mm). The hourly fruit shrinking and swelling rate (mm·h-1) measured with dendrometers and the hourly Ψtrunk (bar) measured with microtensiometers were correlated. We developed a logistic model to correlate Ψtrunk and fruit growth rate (g·h-1), which suggested a critical value of -9.7 bars for Ψtrunk, above which there were no negative effects on fruit growth rate due to water stress in the relatively humid conditions of New York State. A support vector machine model and a multiple regression model were developed to predict daytime hourly Ψtrunk with radiation and VPD as input variables. Yield and fruit size were converted to crop value, which showed that managing water stress with irrigation during dry periods improved crop value in the humid climate of New York State.

The influence of water stress on grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) shoots in a cool, humid climate: growth, gas exchange and hydraulics.

Recent climatic trends of higher average temperatures and erratic precipitation patterns are resulting in decreased soil moisture availability and, consequently, periods of water stress. We studied the effects of seasonal water stress on grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Riesling grafted onto 101-14 (Vitis riparia Michx.×Vitis rupestris Scheele) rootstock) shoot growth, leaf gas exchange, xylem morphology and hydraulic performance in the cool-climate Finger Lakes region of New York. A plastic rain exclusion tarp was installed on the vineyard floor to create a soil moisture deficit and consequently induce vine water stress. Weekly measurements of predawn leaf and midday stem water potentials (Ψmd) were made, and two contrasting shoot length classes, long (length >2.0m) and short (length <1.0m), were monitored. Growth of both long and short shoots was positively correlated with Ψmd but no difference in water status was found between the two. Compared with rain-fed vines, water-stressed vines had lower photosynthesis and stomatal conductance later in the season when Ψmd dropped below -1.2MPa. Long shoots had three-fold higher xylem-specific hydraulic conductivity values than short shoots. Long shoots experiencing water stress were less vulnerable to xylem cavitation than shorter shoots even though they had more large-diameter vessels. The lower vulnerability to cavitation of long shoots may be attributed to less xylem intervessel pitting being found in long shoots, consistent with the air-seeding hypothesis, and suggests that a hydraulic advantage enables them to maintain superior growth and productivity under water stress.

A microtensiometer capable of measuring water potentials below -10 MPa.

Tensiometers sense the chemical potential of water (or water potential, Ψw) in an external phase of interest by measuring the pressure in an internal volume of liquid water in equilibrium with that phase. For sub-saturated phases, the internal pressure is below atmospheric and frequently negative; the liquid is under tension. Here, we present the initial characterization of a new tensiometer based on a microelectromechanical pressure sensor and a nanoporous membrane. We explain the mechanism of operation, fabrication, and calibration of this device. We show that these microtensiometers operate stably out to water potentials below -10 MPa, a tenfold extension of the range of current tensiometers. Finally, we present use of the device to perform an accurate measurement of the equation of state of liquid water at pressures down to -14 MPa. We conclude with a discussion of outstanding design considerations, and of the opportunities opened by the extended range of stability and the small form factor in sensing applications, and in fundamental studies of the thermodynamic properties of water.

Estimating nitrogen uptake of individual roots in container- and field-grown plants using a 15N-depletion approach.

We only have a limited understanding of the nutrient uptake physiology of individual roots as they age. Despite this shortcoming, the importance of nutrient uptake processes to our understanding of plant nutrition and nutrient cycling cannot be underestimated. In this study, we used a 15N depletion method that allowed for the measurement of nitrate-N uptake rates on intact, individual, fine roots of known age. We expected that N uptake would decline rapidly as fine roots aged, regardless of the environmental conditions and species used. We compared age dependent uptake patterns of young grape cuttings with those of mature vines and with those of tomato. Although patterns of declining uptake with increasing root age were similar for all species and conditions tested, large differences in maximum N uptake rates existed between young cuttings and mature vines, and between woody and herbaceous species. Maximum rates were 10-fold higher for tomato and 3-fold higher for the grape cuttings, when compared with uptake rates of fine roots of mature vines. Coefficients of variation ranged from 43 to 122% within root age groups. The large variability in physiological characteristics of fine roots of the same age, diameter and order suggests that there is a functional diversity within fine roots that is still poorly understood.

Isolation and characterization of genes associated with shade-induced apple abscission.

Apple trees generally produce excessive number of flowers and young fruitlets, which negatively affects commercial value. Thus, thinning is an important practice by which excessive flowers and fruitlets abort. Fruit abscission is difficult to predict or control, as many factors including shading can cause fruitlets to abort. In order to understand the molecular basis of shade-induced fruit abscission, two cDNA libraries were constructed using the suppression-subtractive hybridization (SSH) method and 347 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were obtained. 168 ESTs represent transcripts that are preferentially expressed after 24 h of shading, and the other 179 are derived from RNAs of small apple fruits that were shaded for 72 h. Sequence analyses revealed that these clones represent 68 (24 h) and 44 (72 h) unique genes; these genes belong in eight functional categories. The largest set of genes is related to carbohydrate metabolism including the sorbitol 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (S6PDH) gene that was generally believed not to be expressed in young fruits, while the second largest group contains unclassified or unknown genes. RNA gel blot analysis confirmed that at least 26 genes are up-regulated after shade treatment. Some of these known genes may serve as molecular markers for apple monitoring the induction of fruitlet abscission. Improved genetic understanding is critical to the development of targeted abscission agents to better control apple crop loads and optimize apple production.

Effects of cluster light exposure on 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine accumulation and degradation patterns in red wine grapes ( Vitis vinifera L. Cv. Cabernet Franc).

The effects of light exposure on 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine (IBMP) accumulation and degradation in Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Franc berries were assessed by comparison of shaded and exposed clusters within the same vine throughout a growing season. Twenty-seven vines were shoot-thinned to create regions of high and low cluster-light exposure within each vine. Samples were collected at 10 time points starting from 5 to 130 days postbloom. The experimental design allowed for intravine comparison of IBMP levels between treatments at each time. Vine-to-vine variability of IBMP and the correlation of IBMP to malic acid were also evaluated. Cluster exposure reduced accumulation of IBMP at all preveraison time points by 21-44%, but did not increase postveraison degradation. Significant vine-to-vine variability in IBMP content was observed, with the highest level of IBMP in shaded berries in the most vigorous block of vines. Although IBMP concentration by weight decreased significantly due to dilution just prior to color change (veraison), no significant IBMP degradation per berry occurred until after color change (day 70 postbloom). By contrast, malic acid degradation began prior to color change, and malic acid concentrations were not affected by cluster exposure preveraison, but were affected postveraison. A survey of 13 sites in New York state (Seneca Lake) showed that IBMP concentrations at 2 weeks preveraison were highly correlated (R(2) = 0.936, p < 0.0001) to levels at harvest, whereas classic grape maturity indices at harvest were uncorrelated with IBMP at harvest. In summary, light exposure conditions critically influence IBMP accumulation but not IBMP degradation.

Interactive effects of soil temperature and moisture on Concord grape root respiration.

Root respiration has important implications for understanding plant growth as well as terrestrial carbon flux with a changing climate. Although soil temperature and soil moisture often interact, rarely have these interactions on root respiration been studied. This report is on the individual and combined effects of soil moisture and temperature on respiratory responses of single branch roots of 1-year-old Concord grape (Vitis labruscana Bailey) vines grown in a greenhouse. Under moist soil conditions, root respiration increased exponentially to short-term (1 h) increases in temperature between 10 degrees C and 33 degrees C. Negligible increases in root respiration occurred between 33 degrees C and 38 degrees C. By contrast to a slowly decreasing Q10 from short-term temperature increases, when roots were exposed to constant temperatures for 3 d, the respiratory Q10 between 10 degrees C and 30 degrees C diminished steeply with an increase in temperature. Above 30 degrees C, respiration declined with an increase in temperature. Membrane leakage was 89-98% higher and nitrogen concentration was about 18% lower for roots exposed to 35 degrees C for 3 d than for those exposed to 25 degrees C and 15 degrees C. There was a strong interaction of respiration with a combination of elevated temperature and soil drying. At low soil temperatures (10 degrees C), respiration was little influenced by soil drying, while at moderate to high temperatures (20 degrees C and 30 degrees C), respiration exhibited rapid declines with decreases in soil moisture. Roots exposed to drying soil also exhibited increased membrane leakage and reduced N. These findings of acclimation of root respiration are important to modelling respiration under different moisture and temperature regimes.

Climate change and shifts in spring phenology of three horticultural woody perennials in northeastern USA.

We evaluated spring phenology changes from 1965 to 2001 in northeastern USA utilizing a unique data set from 72 locations with genetically identical lilac plants (Syringa chinensis, clone "Red Rothomagensis"). We also utilized a previously validated lilac-honeysuckle "spring index" model to reconstruct a more complete record of first leaf date (FLD) and first flower date (FFD) for the region from historical weather data. In addition, we examined mid-bloom dates for apple (Malus domestica) and grape (Vitis vinifera) collected at several sites in the region during approximately the same time period. Almost all lilac sites with significant linear trends for FLD or FFD versus year had negative slopes (advanced development). Regression analysis of pooled data for the 72 sites indicated an advance of -0.092 day/year for FFD (P=0.003). The slope for FLD was also negative (-0.048 day/year), but not significant (P=0.234). The simulated data from the "spring index" model, which relies on local daily temperature records, indicated highly significant (P<0.001) negative slopes of -0.210 and -0.123 day/year for FLD and FFD, respectively. Data collected for apple and grape also indicated advance spring development, with slopes for mid-bloom date versus year of -0.20 day/year (P=0.01) and -0.146 (P=0.14), respectively. Collectively, these results indicate an advance in spring phenology ranging from 2 to 8 days for these woody perennials in northeastern USA for the period 1965 to 2001, qualitatively consistent with a warming trend, and consistent with phenology shifts reported for other mid- and high-latitude regions.