Polarization-dependent intensity ratios in double resonance spectroscopy.

Double Resonance is a powerful spectroscopic method that unambiguously assigns the rigorous quantum numbers of one state of a transition. However, there is often ambiguity as to the branch (ΔJ) of that transition. Spectroscopists have resolved this ambiguity by using the dependence of the double resonance intensity on the relative polarization directions of pump and probe radiation. However, published theoretical predictions for this ratio are based upon a weak (i.e., non-saturating) field approximation. This paper presents theoretical predictions for these intensity ratios for cases where the pump field is strongly saturating in the two limits of transitions dominated by homogeneous or of inhomogeneous broadening. Saturation reduces but does not eliminate the magnitude of the polarization effect (driving the intensity ratio closer to unity) even with strong pump saturation. For the case of an inhomogeneously broadened line, such as when Doppler broadened linewidth dominates over the power-broadened homogeneous line width, a large fraction of the low pump power polarization anisotropy remains. This paper reports predicted polarization ratios for both linear and circular pump and probe field polarizations. The present predictions are compared with experimental measurements on CH4 ground state → ν3 → 3ν3 transitions recently reported by de Oliveira et al.63 and these are in better agreement than with the weak field predictions.

Sub-Doppler Double-Resonance Spectroscopy of Methane Using a Frequency Comb Probe.

We report the first measurement of sub-Doppler molecular response using a frequency comb by employing the comb as a probe in optical-optical double-resonance spectroscopy. We use a 3.3 µm continuous wave pump and a 1.67 µm comb probe to detect sub-Doppler transitions to the 2ν_{3} and 3ν_{3} bands of methane with ∼1.7 MHz center frequency accuracy. These measurements provide the first verification of the accuracy of theoretical predictions from highly vibrationally excited states, needed to model the high-temperature spectra of exoplanets. Transition frequencies to the 3ν_{3} band show good agreement with the TheoReTS line list.

Two-photon absorption line shapes in the transit-time limit.

A weak excitation transit-time resolution limited analytic line shape is derived for a Doppler broadening-free degenerate two-photon transition from a standing wave with a TEM00 transverse profile. This approximation is appropriate when the collisional mean free path is much larger than the transverse width of the TEM00 beam. It is considerably simpler than the two-photon absorption line shape previously published, Bordé, C. R. Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci., Ser. B 282, 341-344 (1976), which was derived for more general experimental conditions. The case of a saturating field, with an intensity-dependent shift of the resonance frequency, is treated and expressed in reduced units. Numerical calculations are presented for the line shape for a range of the reduced intensity and light intensity shifts values.

Resonance enhanced two-photon cavity ring-down spectroscopy of vibrational overtone bands: A proposal.

This paper presents an analysis of near-resonant, rovibrational two-photon spectroscopy and the use of cavity ring-down spectroscopy for its detection. Expressions are derived for the photon absorption rate of a three-level system, correct to all orders and the simpler expressions that result from various approximations. The analysis includes the angular momentum projection degeneracies and linear or circular polarization of the exciting field. Expressions are derived for the rate of two-photon power loss for light inside a resonant cavity. Explicit calculations are made for excitation of the ν3 mode of 12C16O2 for which the two-photon excitation spectrum is dominated by a single v3 = 0 → 2, Q(16) line at ν̃=2335.826 cm-1. This transition has an intermediate v3 = 0 → 1, P(16) one-photon transition that is off resonance by 0.093 cm-1 (2.8 GHz). At 1 Torr total pressure, the Q(16) two-photon transition is calculated to have a cross section of 2.99 × 10-38 cm4 s per CO2 molecule in the J = 16 state or 2.24 × 10-39 cm4 s per CO2 molecule at 300 K. The analysis of the sensitivity limits for 2-photon cavity ring-down spectroscopy predicts a theoretical detection limit of 32 ppq (10-15) Hz-1/2 for 12C16O2, higher sensitivity than has been realized using one-photon absorption. The analysis predicts that most polyatomic molecules will have sparse, Doppler-free two-photon absorption spectra, which will dramatically increase the selectivity of trace gas detection of samples with multiple components with overlapping absorption bands. This is demonstrated by the predicted mid-IR two-photon absorption spectrum of butadiene using theoretical spectroscopic constants.

Influence of spatial degeneracy on rotational spectroscopy: Three-wave mixing and enantiomeric state separation of chiral molecules.

Pulse flip angles are calculated for three-wave mixing, three-state cycles of chiral molecules to produce optimized free induction decay amplitudes proportional to the enantiomeric excess of a sample and to produce optimized degrees of state-specific enantiomeric separation. The calculations account for the spatial degeneracy of the levels involved and the resulting inhomogeneous distribution of transition dipole moments. Cycles of transitions that include R followed by Q followed by P branch transitions display only modest reductions of the calculated optimal signals compared to those calculated if every M component was optimally polarized. Transition cycles P-Q-R are only slightly worse, while the Q-Q-Q cycles are much worse, increasingly so, as the rotational total quantum number is increased.

Lightweight Raman spectroscope using time-correlated photon-counting detection.

Raman spectroscopy is an important tool in understanding chemical components of various materials. However, the excessive weight and energy consumption of a conventional CCD-based Raman spectrometer forbids its applications under extreme conditions, including unmanned aircraft vehicles (UAVs) and Mars/Moon rovers. In this article, we present a highly sensitive, shot-noise-limited, and ruggedized Raman signal acquisition using a time-correlated photon-counting system. Compared with conventional Raman spectrometers, over 95% weight, 65% energy consumption, and 70% cost could be removed through this design. This technique allows space- and UAV-based Raman spectrometers to robustly perform hyperspectral Raman acquisitions without excessive energy consumption.

The gas-phase structure of the asymmetric, trans-dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4), formed by dimerization of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), from rotational spectroscopy and ab initio quantum chemistry.

We report the first experimental gas-phase observation of an asymmetric, trans-N2O4 formed by the dimerization of NO2. In additional to the dominant 14N216O4 species, rotational transitions have been observed for all species with single 15N and 18O substitutions as well as several multiply substituted isotopologues. These transitions were used to determine a complete substitution structure as well as an r0 structure from the fitted zero-point averaged rotational constants. The determined structure is found to be that of an ON-O-NO2 linkage with the shared oxygen atom closer to the NO2 than the NO (1.42 vs 1.61 Å). The structure is found to be nearly planar with a trans O-N-O-N linkage. From the spectra of the 14N15NO4 species, we were able to determine the nuclear quadrupole coupling constants for each specific nitrogen atom. The equilibrium structure determined by ab initio quantum chemistry calculations is in excellent agreement with the experimentally determined structure. No spectral evidence of the predicted asymmetric, cis-N2O4 was found in the spectra.

Detection of S-nitroso compounds by use of midinfrared cavity ring-down spectroscopy.

S-Nitroso compounds have received much attention in biological research. In addition to their role as nitric oxide donors, there is growing evidence that these compounds are involved in signaling processes in biological systems. Determination of S-nitrosylated proteins is of great importance for fundamental biological research and medical applications. The most common method to assay biological S-nitroso compounds is to chemically or photochemically reduce SNO functional groups to release nitric oxide, which is then entrained in an inert gas stream and detected, usually through chemiluminescence. We report a method of S-nitroso compound detection using cavity ring-down measurements of gaseous NO absorbance at 5.2 µm. The proposed method, in contrast to the chemiluminescence-based approach, can be used to distinguish isotopic forms of NO. We demonstrated sensitivity down to ∼2 pmol of S(14)NO groups and ∼5 pmol of S(15)NO groups for S-nitroso compounds in aqueous solutions. The wide dynamic range of cavity ring-down detection allows the measurement of S-nitroso compound levels from pico- to nanomole amounts.

Sub-Doppler optical-optical double-resonance spectroscopy using a cavity-enhanced frequency comb probe.

Accurate parameters of molecular hot-band transitions, i.e., those starting from vibrationally excited levels, are needed to accurately model high-temperature spectra in astrophysics and combustion, yet laboratory spectra measured at high temperatures are often unresolved and difficult to assign. Optical-optical double-resonance (OODR) spectroscopy allows the measurement and assignment of individual hot-band transitions from selectively pumped energy levels without the need to heat the sample. However, previous demonstrations lacked either sufficient resolution, spectral coverage, absorption sensitivity, or frequency accuracy. Here we demonstrate OODR spectroscopy using a cavity-enhanced frequency comb probe that combines all these advantages. We detect and assign sub-Doppler transitions in the spectral range of the 3ν3 ← ν3 resonance of methane with frequency precision and sensitivity more than an order of magnitude better than before. This technique will provide high-accuracy data about excited states of a wide range of molecules that is urgently needed for theoretical modeling of high-temperature data and cannot be obtained using other methods.

Measurement of the 13C/12C of atmospheric CH4 using near-infrared (NIR) cavity ring-down spectroscopy.

A near-infrared (NIR) continuous-wave-cavity ring-down spectrometry (CW-CRDS) device was developed with the goal of measuring seasonal changes in the isotopic composition of atmospheric CH4 on Earth and eventually on Mars. The system consisted of three distributed feedback laser diodes (DFB-LDs), two of which were tuned to the absorption line peaks of (12)CH4 and (13)CH4 at 6046.954 cm(-1) and 6049.121 cm(-1), respectively, and a third that measured the baseline at 6050.766 cm(-1). The multiple laser design improved the long-term stability of the system and increased the data acquisition rate. The acquisition frequency was further increased by utilizing a semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) to initiate cavity ring-down events. The high repetition rate combined with the superhigh reflectivity mirrors yielded precise isotopic measurements in this NIR region, even though the line strengths of CH4 in this region are 200 times weaker than those of the strongest mid-IR absorption bands. The current system has a detection limit of 1.9 × 10(-12) cm(-1), corresponding to 10 pptv of CH4 at 100 Torr. For ambient air samples that contained 1.9 ppmv CH4, the δ(13)C of the CH4 was determined to be -48.7 ± 1.7‰ (1σ).

Sensitivity limits of continuous wave cavity ring-down spectroscopy.

An optimized nonlinear least-squares fit algorithm for data processing in cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) is discussed, which improves the calculation efficiency substantially over using a general purpose fitting package. Theoretical absorption sensitivity limits for both the detector noise and the shot noise limited situations are derived and compared with experimental results. The effect of limiting the bandwidth of detection system on ring-down signal is discussed and compared with real ring-down data. The optimal trigger level and fitting interval are obtained for continuous wave cavity ring-down spectroscopy (cw-CRDS) in both the detector noise and shot noise limits, with the resulting sensitivity in units of cm(-1) per (Hz(1/2)) derived. Interestingly, it is found that the optimized shot noise limited sensitivity in cw-CRDS method is, in principle, comparable with the ultimate sensitivity of noise-immune cavity-enhanced optical heterodyne molecular spectroscopy (NICE-OHMS).

Sensitivity limit of rapidly swept continuous wave cavity ring-down spectroscopy.

The averaged transmitted intensity of a cavity excited by a linearly frequency swept laser with finite line width is derived and presented as a sum over passes, analytical integrals (where the sum of passes is converted to a continuous time variable), and an approximate but computationally more stable stationary phase approximation expression. The transmitted waveform is used to derive the bias in extraction of the cavity decay rate from such a cavity transient for three different fitting models. Numerical simulation of cavity excitation gives statistical fluctuations in the transmitted intensity that leads to noise in the cavity decay rate. For a range of parameters spanning those likely to be encountered in real experiments, numerical results are presented. These demonstrate that the theoretical signal-to-noise ratio and thus sensitivity of swept cavity (or equivalently, frequency) CRDS is substantially below that for CRDS where one attenuates the laser either with current modulation or with an external modulator.

(HCN)(m)-M(n) (M = K, Ca, Sr): vibrational excitation induced solvation and desolvation of dopants in and on helium nanodroplets.

Infrared (IR) laser spectroscopy is used to probe the rotational and vibrational dynamics of the (HCN)(m)-M(n) (M = K, Ca, Sr) complexes, either solvated within or bound to the surface of helium nanodroplets. The IR spectra of the (HCN)(m)-K (m = 1-3), HCN-Sr, and HCN-Ca complexes have the signature of a surface species, similar to the previously reported spectra of HCN-M (M = Na, K, Rb, Cs) [Douberly, G. E.; Miller, R. E. J. Phys. Chem. A 2007, 111, 7292.]. A second band in the HCN-Ca spectrum is assigned to a solvated complex. The relative intensities of the two HCN-Ca bands are droplet size dependent, with the solvated species being favored in larger droplets. IR-IR double resonance spectroscopy is used to probe the interconversion of the two distinct HCN-Ca populations. While only a surface-bound HCN-Sr species is initially produced, CH stretch vibrational excitation results in a population transfer to a solvated state. Complexes containing multiple HCN molecules and one Sr atom are surface-bound, while the nu(1) (HCN)(2)Ca spectrum has both the solvated and surface-bound signatures. All HCN-(Ca,Sr)(n) (n > or = 2) complexes are solvated following cluster formation in the droplet. Density-functional calculations of helium nanodroplets interacting with the HCN-M show surface binding for M = Na with a binding energy of 95 cm(-1). The calculations predict a fully solvated complex for M = Ca. For M = Sr, a 2.2 cm(-1) barrier is predicted between nearly isoenergetic surface binding and solvated states.

Long-term stability in continuous wave cavity ringdown spectroscopy experiments.

Allan variance has been used to characterize the slow drift of a near-IR distributed feedback laser-based continuous wave cavity ringdown spectroscopy (CW-CRDS) system. Long-term drift in the cavity loss rate, highly correlated with changes in ambient pressure but not temperature, is observed. With differential measurement of on- and off-peak decay rates, the drift between them largely cancels out, but some residual drift remains if the lasers are detuned more than a few hundred megahertz from each other. A sensitivity to bulk cavity loss (1sigma) of 4.4 x 10(-12) cm(-1) has been obtained during an optimum integration time of approximately 30 min with our CW-CRDS setup, which corresponds to the methane detection limit (3sigma) in N(2) of 0.24 parts in 10(9) by volume (ppbv) at 20 Torr or 29 parts in 10(12) by volume (pptv) at 760 Torr pressure. The stability of our system is demonstrated by measuring sub-ppbv methane in N(2) at 760 Torr through recording the spectrum of methane lines with our setup.

Doppler-Free Two-Photon Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy of a Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Vibrational Overtone Transition.

We report Doppler-free two-photon absorption of N2O at λ = 4.53 µm, measured by cavity ring-down spectroscopy. High power was achieved by optical self-locking of a quantum cascade laser to a linear resonator of finesse F = 22730 , and accurate laser detuning over a 400 MHz range was measured relative to an optical frequency comb. At a sample pressure of p = 0.13 kPa, we report a large two-photon cross-section per molecule of σ 13 ( 2 ) = 8.0 × 10 - 41 cm4 s for the Q(18) rovibrational transition at a resonant frequency of ν 0 = 66179400.8 MHz.

Brewster angle prism retroreflectors for cavity enhanced spectroscopy.

The design of a high finesse optical cavity made from two prism retroreflectors is fully described. Optical beam propagation calculations to determine the specification of prism angles and relative dimensions, the size of the astigmatic TEM00 beam as it propagates in the cavity, and the sensitivity of the optic axis to changes in prism alignment and fabrication errors are presented. The effects of material dispersion are also quantified for three different materials: fused silica, calcium fluoride, and barium fluoride. The predictions made are found to be in good agreement with experimental results obtained from prisms we had made from fused silica. Prisms made of CaF2 and BaF2 are predicted to be useful for applications in the UV and mid-IR spectral regions, respectively.

Cavity enhanced absorption spectroscopy using a broadband prism cavity and a supercontinuum source.

We report the design and construction of a cavity enhanced absorption spectrometer using broadband Brewster's angle prism retroreflectors and a spatially coherent 500 nm to >1.75 microm supercontinuum excitation source. Using prisms made from fused silica an effective cavity reflectivity of >99.99% at 1.064 microm was achieved. A proof of principle experiment was performed by recording the cavity enhanced absorption spectrum of the weak b-X (1?0) transition of molecular oxygen at 14529 cm-1 and the fifth overtone of the acetylene C-H stretch at 18430 cm(-1). CCD frames were integrated for 150 sec and 30 sec, with 3 frames (each 100 cm(-1) wide) and 1 frame (266 cm(-1) wide) required to observe the O(2) and C(2)H(2) spectra, respectively. A rms noise equivalent absorption (alpha(min)) of 7.21x10(-8) cm(-1) Hz(-1/2) and 1.28x10(-7) cm(-1) Hz(-1/2) with full width half maximum line widths of 0.18 cm(-1) and 0.44 cm(-1) were achieved for the molecular oxygen band and the acetylene overtone, respectively.

Effects of linear birefringence and polarization-dependent loss of supermirrors in cavity ring-down spectroscopy.

In cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS), residual or stress-induced birefringence (10(-7)-10(-6) rad) of supermirrors will lift the polarization degeneracy of TEM(00) modes and generate two new polarization eigenstates in the cavity with small resonant frequency splitting (approximately 0.1 kHz); the new eigenstates are nearly linearly polarized. When both modes are excited simultaneously, the intracavity polarization state will evolve as the energy decays in the cavity. Without polarization analysis, such mode beating would not be observable. However, real supermirrors have a linear polarization-dependent loss (dichroism) that leads to a change in the loss rate as the polarization state evolves and thus to deviation from the expected single-exponential decay. We develop a model for the evolution of the intracavity polarization state and intensity for a cavity with both birefringence and polarization-dependent loss in the mirrors. We demonstrate, experimentally, that these parameters (both magnitudes and directions) can be extracted from a series of measurements of the cavity decay and depolarization of the transmitted light.

Hydrogen Isotopic Composition of Arctic and Atmospheric CH4 Determined by a Portable Near-Infrared Cavity Ring-Down Spectrometer with a Cryogenic Pre-Concentrator.

In this study, near-infrared continuous wave cavity ring-down spectroscopy was applied to the measurement of the δ2H of methane (CH4). The cavity ring-down spectrometer (CRDS) system consisted of multiple DFB laser diodes to optimize selection of spectral line pairs. By rapidly switching measurements between spectral line peaks and the baseline regions, the long-term instrumental drift was minimized, substantially increasing measurement precision. The CRDS system coupled with a cryogenic pre-concentrator measured the δ2H of terrestrial atmospheric CH4 from 3 standard liters of air with a precision of ±1.7‰. The rapidity with which both C and H isotopic measurements of CH4 can be made with the CRDS will enable hourly monitoring of diurnal variations in terrestrial atmospheric CH4 signatures that can be used to increase the resolution of global climate models for the CH4 cycle. Although the current instrument is not capable of measuring the δ2H of 10 ppbv of martian CH4, current technology does exist that could make this feasible for future spaceflight missions. As biological and abiotic CH4 sources have overlapping carbon isotope signatures, dual-element (C and H) analysis is key to reliable differentiation of these sources. Such an instrument package would therefore offer improved ability to determine whether or not the CH4 recently detected in the martian atmosphere is biogenic in origin. Key Words: Arctic-Hydrogen isotopes-Atmospheric CH4-CRDS-Laser. Astrobiology 16, 787-797.