Carvacrol Encapsulation in Chitosan-Carboxymethylcellulose-Alginate Nanocarriers for Postharvest Tomato Protection.

Advancements in polymer science and nanotechnology hold significant potential for addressing the increasing demands of food security, by enhancing the shelf life, barrier properties, and nutritional quality of harvested fruits and vegetables. In this context, biopolymer-based delivery systems present themselves as a promising strategy for encapsulating bioactive compounds, improving their absorption, stability, and functionality. This study provides an exploration of the synthesis, characterization, and postharvest protection applications of nanocarriers formed through the complexation of chitosan oligomers, carboxymethylcellulose, and alginate in a 2:2:1 molar ratio. This complexation process was facilitated by methacrylic anhydride and sodium tripolyphosphate as cross-linking agents. Characterization techniques employed include transmission electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, thermal analysis, and X-ray powder diffraction. The resulting hollow nanospheres, characterized by a monodisperse distribution and a mean diameter of 114 nm, exhibited efficient encapsulation of carvacrol, with a loading capacity of approximately 20%. Their suitability for phytopathogen control was assessed in vitro against three phytopathogens-Botrytis cinerea, Penicillium expansum, and Colletotrichum coccodes-revealing minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 23.3 to 31.3 µg·mL-1. This indicates a higher activity compared to non-encapsulated conventional fungicides. In ex situ tests for tomato (cv. 'Daniela') protection, higher doses (50-100 µg·mL-1, depending on the pathogen) were necessary to achieve high protection. Nevertheless, these doses remained practical for real-world applicability. The advantages of safety, coupled with the potential for a multi-target mode of action, further enhance the appeal of these nanocarriers.

Phytoconstituents and Ergosterol Biosynthesis-Targeting Antimicrobial Activity of Nutmeg (Myristica fragans Houtt.) against Phytopathogens.

In recent years, nutmeg (Myristica fragans Houtt.) has attracted considerable attention in the field of phytochemistry due to its diverse array of bioactive compounds. However, the potential application of nutmeg as a biorational for crop protection has been insufficiently explored. This study investigated the constituents of a nutmeg hydroethanolic extract via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and vibrational spectroscopy. The research explored the extract's activity against phytopathogenic fungi and oomycetes, elucidating its mechanism of action. The phytochemical profile revealed fatty acids (including tetradecanoic acid, 9-octadecenoic acid, n-hexadecanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, and octadecanoic acid), methoxyeugenol, and elemicin as the main constituents. Previously unreported phytochemicals included veratone, gelsevirine, and montanine. Significant radial growth inhibition of mycelia was observed against Botrytis cinerea, Colletotrichum acutatum, Diplodia corticola, Phytophthora cinnamomi, and especially against Fusarium culmorum. Mode of action investigation, involving Saccharomyces cerevisiae labeled positively with propidium iodide, and a mutant strain affected in ERG6, encoding sterol C-24 methyltransferase, suggested that the extract induces a necrotic type of death and targets ergosterol biosynthesis. The evidence presented underscores the potential of nutmeg as a source of new antimicrobial agents, showing particular promise against F. culmorum.

Phytochemical Profiling of Sambucus nigra L. Flower and Leaf Extracts and Their Antimicrobial Potential against Almond Tree Pathogens.

Despite extensive research on the chemical composition of elderberries and their numerous uses in pharmaceutical, beverage, and food production, there is still a lack of knowledge about Sambucus nigra leaves and flowers' antimicrobial activity against plant pathogens. In this study, the phytoconstituents of their aqueous ammonia extracts were first characterized by infrared spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The major phytocompounds identified in the flower extract were octyl 2-methylpropanoate; 3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-2,3-dihydropyran-4-one; propyl malonic acid; adenine; and 1-methyl-2-piperidinemethanol. Concerning the leaf extract, 1,6-anhydro-ß-D-glucopyranose; oleic acid; 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole; 2,3-dihydro-benzofuran; and 4-((1E)-3-hydroxy-1-propenyl)-2-methoxyphenol and other phenol derivatives were the main constituents. The potential of the extracts to act as bioprotectants was then investigated against three almond tree pathogens: Diaporthe amygdali, Phytophthora megasperma, and Verticillium dahliae. In vitro tests showed higher activity of the flower extract, with EC90 values in the 241-984 µg·mL-1 range (depending on the pathogen) vs. 354-1322 µg·mL-1 for the leaf extract. In addition, the flower extract led to full protection against P. megasperma at a dose of 1875 µg·mL-1 in ex situ tests on artificially-infected excised almond stems. These inhibitory concentrations were lower than those of commercial fungicides. These findings suggest that S. nigra aerial organs may be susceptible to valorization as an alternative to synthetic fungicides for the protection of this important crop.

Helichrysum stoechas (L.) Moench Inflorescence Extract for Tomato Disease Management.

Helichrysum stoechas is a singular halophyte that has been shown to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and allelopathic properties. In the work presented herein, we have characterized its inflorescences hydromethanolic extract and assessed its antifungal activity for the pre- and postharvest management of tomato crop diseases. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry characterization of the extract showed that 4-ethenyl-1,3-benzenediol, 2,3-dihydro-benzofuran, quinic acid, 3,5-dihydroxy-6,7,8-trimethoxy-2-phenyl-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one, 1,6-anhydro-ß-D-glucopyranose, catechol, scopoletin, and maltol were the main constituents. The co-occurrence of pyranones, benzenediols, and quinic acids as phytoconstituents of H. stoechas extract resulted in promising in vitro minimum inhibitory concentrations of 500, 375, 500, 187.5, 187.5, and 375 µg·mL-1 against mycelia of Alternaria alternata, Colletotrichum coccodes, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, and Verticillium dahliae, respectively. Further, to assess the potential of H. stoechas inflorescence extract for postharvest tomato crop protection, ex situ tests were conducted against C. coccodes, obtaining high protection at a dose of 750 µg·mL-1. Taking into consideration that the demonstrated activity is among the highest reported to date for plant extracts and comparable to that of the synthetic fungicides tested as positive controls, H. stoechas inflorescence extract may be put forward as a promising biorational and may deserve further testing in field-scale studies.

Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd. Flower Hydromethanolic Extract for Cucurbitaceae Fungal Diseases Control.

The cliff rose (Armeria maritima), like other halophytes, has a phenolics-based antioxidant system that allows it to grow in saline habitats. Provided that antioxidant properties are usually accompanied by antimicrobial activity, in this study we investigated the phytochemicals present in a hydromethanolic extract of A. maritima flowers and explored its antifungal potential. The main phytocompounds, identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, were: hexadecanoic acid, octadecanoic acid, 9-octadecenoic acid, 3-(3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl)-acrylic acid ethyl ester, and benzeneacetaldehyde. The antifungal activity of the extract and its main constituents-alone and in combination with chitosan oligomers-was tested against six pathogenic taxa associated with soil-borne diseases of plant hosts in the family Cucurbitaceae: Fusarium equiseti, F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum, Macrophomina phaseolina, Neocosmospora falciformis, N. keratoplastica, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. In in vitro tests, EC90 effective concentrations in the 166-865 µg·mL-1 range were obtained for the chitosan oligomers-A. maritima extract conjugate complexes, lower than those obtained for fosetyl-Al and azoxystrobin synthetic fungicides tested for comparison purposes, and even outperforming mancozeb against F. equiseti. In ex situ tests against S. sclerotiorum conducted on artificially inoculated cucumber slices, full protection was achieved at a dose of 250 µg·mL-1. Thus, the reported results support the valorization of A. maritima as a source of biorationals for Cucurbitaceae pathogens protection, suitable for both organic and conventional agriculture.

Holm Oak (Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.) Bark Aqueous Ammonia Extract for the Control of Invasive Forest Pathogens.

Holm oak (Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.) bark is a commonly used remedy to treat gastrointestinal disorders, throat and skin infections, hemorrhages, and dysentery. It has also been previously reported that its methanol extracts possess antibacterial activity, which can be related to the richness of Quercus spp. extracts in phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids and tannins. However, there is no information on the antifungal (including oomycete) properties of the bark from Q. ilex or its subspecies (ilex and ballota). In this work, we report the characterization of the aqueous ammonia extract of its bark by FTIR and GC-MS and the results of in vitro and ex situ inhibition tests against three phytopathogens. The main phytochemical components identified were inositols (19.5%), trans-squalene (13%), 4-butoxy-1-butanol (11.4%), gulopyranose (9.6%), lyxose (6.5%), 2,4-dimethyl-benzo[H]quinoline (5.1%), catechol (4.5%), and methoxyphenols (4.2%). The efficacy of the extract in controlling forest phytopathogens was tested in vitro against Fusarium circinatum (responsible for pitch canker of Pinus spp.), Cryphonectria parasitica (which causes chestnut blight), and Phytophthora cinnamomi (which causes 'root and crown rot' in a variety of hosts, including Castanea, conifers, Eucalyptus, Fagus, Juglans, Quercus, etc.), obtaining EC90 values of 322, 295, and 75 µg·mL-1, respectively, much lower than those attained for a commercial strobilurin fungicide (azoxystrobin). The extract was further tested ex situ against P. cinnamomi on artificially inoculated, excised stems of 'Garnem' almond rootstock, attaining complete protection at a dose of 782 µg·mL-1. The results suggest that holm oak bark extract may be a promising source of bioactive compounds against invasive forest pathogens, including the oomycete that is causing its decline, the so-called 'seca' in Spain.

Seeds as Potential Sources of Phenolic Compounds and Minerals for the Indian Population.

Seeds are major sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds for human beings. In this work, the chemical composition and physicochemical properties of 155 Indian seeds (belonging to 49 families) are reported. Moisture and ash were measured with reference protocols from AOAC; total polyphenols and flavonoids were measured with spectrophotometric methods after extraction with organic solvents, and mineral elements were determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrophotometry. Total phenolic compounds, flavonoids and mineral contents (Al, Ba, Ca, Cl, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, P, Rb, S, Sr, Ti, V and Zn) were found to vary in the ranges 182−5000, 110−4465 and 687−7904 mg/100 g (DW), respectively. Noticeably, polyphenol contents higher than 2750 mg/100 g were observed in 18 seeds. In addition, mineral contents >5000 mg/100 g were detected in the seeds from Cuminum cyminum, Foeniculum vulgare, Commiphora wightii, Parkia javanica, Putranjiva roxburghii, Santalum album and Strychnos potatorum. Botanical and taxonomical variations in the proximate characteristics of the examined seeds are also discussed.

Algal characterization and bioaccumulation of trace elements from polluted water.

Algae are a group of autotropic and eukaryotic organisms that play a significant role in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, fuel, and textile industries. They are an important part of our ecosystem, and they can help control the growing problem of pollution. In this work, the carotenoid, sterol, polyphenol and mineral content, spectral and thermal characteristics of six common river algae, viz. Chara spp., Hydrodictyon spp., Lyngbya spp., Nitella spp., Pithophora spp., and Spirogyra spp., collected from Kharun river (India), were evaluated. The concentration of oil, total polyphenols, flavonoids, and mineral ranged from 0.4 to 4.3%, from 2705 to 4450 mg/kg, from 1590 to 2970 mg/kg, and from 85,466 to 122,871 mg/kg of algae (dw), respectively. The concentration of carotenoids and sterols varied from 1.6 to 109 mg/kg and from 522 to 35,664 mg/kg. The potentiality towards the bioaccumulation of 22 trace elements from the surface reservoir was assessed and discussed in relation to carbonate inlay of the algae wall and to the ions ability to bind to pectin, polypeptides, carotenoids, polyphenols, and flavonoids, on the basis of infrared spectroscopy data. In view of the extremely high enrichment factors found for certain elements, such as P, Co, Cu, Pb, and Fe, some of these algae hold promise as bioindicators for the detection of these elements in aquatic environments. Ordination analysis was used to measure the variance gradient of the algal data.

On the Performance of Hybrid Functionals for Non-linear Optical Properties and Electronic Excitations in Chiral Molecular Crystals: The Case of Butterfly-Shaped Dicinnamalacetone.

Purely organic chiral molecular assemblies in the solid state hold great potential for non-linear optical applications. Herein, a newly synthesised molecular system is reported, namely, dicinnamalacetone, an otherwise planar molecule that crystallises in a disordered non-centrosymmetric form with four different conformations having an overall predominance of a particular helicity. A combined experimental and theoretical approach, including single-crystal X-ray diffraction, Kurtz-Perry and ab initio methods, is employed to characterise the system and benchmark the performance of hybrid functionals for the prediction of non-linear optical properties and electronic excitations. Comparison of experiment and theory points to a particular set of hybrid functionals that provides an optimal description of this molecular system.

Photocatalytic activities of coke carbon/g-C3N4 and Bi metal/Bi mixed oxides/g-C3N4 nanohybrids for the degradation of pollutants in wastewater.

Different g-C3N4 composite systems (coke carbon/g-C3N4, Bi/Bi2WO6/g-C3N4 and Bi/Bi2MoO6/g-C3N4) have been assessed as photocatalysts for wastewater pollutants removal. The coke carbon/g-C3N4 hybrid, produced by thermal treatment at 550 °C of a composite made from melamine cyanurate and coke, only showed activity under UV-light irradiation. On the other hand, inorganic Bi spheres/Bi mixed oxides/g-C3N4 nanohybrids (Bi/Bi2WO6/g-C3N4 and Bi/Bi2MoO6/g-C3N4 composites), produced by thermal reduction of Bi2WO6 or Bi2MoO6 by g-C3N4, exhibited a remarkable red-shift, up to 620 nm, and allowed the visible-light driven degradation of the contaminant, albeit in combination with some adsorption.

Rhodamine B removal with activated carbons obtained from lignocellulosic waste.

By-products from the wax production process from carnauba palm (leaves), from the extraction of oil from macauba seeds (endocarp) and from pine nut production (shell) have been assessed for activated carbon production, using H3PO4 or CaCl2 for their chemical activation. The resulting activated charcoals have been thoroughly characterized by elemental and thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, electron scanning microscopy and N2 adsorption behavior. Subsequently, their adsorption capacity for the removal of rhodamine B (RhB) from aqueous solutions has been evaluated by studying different parameters: contact time, pH, adsorbent dose, initial dye concentration and solution temperature. The adsorption of RhB followed Freundlich's model in all cases. Kinetic studies indicate that the pseudo-second order model can be used for describing the dynamics of the adsorption process. Thermodynamic parameters have also been evaluated, indicating its endothermic and spontaneous nature. Finally, a preliminary analysis of the impact of cellulose content in the carbon precursor materials has been conducted, by using a mixture of native cellulose with one of the lignocellulosic materials.

Phytochemical study of 'tajy' (Handroanthus impetiginosus (Mart.) Mattos) and 'ka'a oveti' (Luehea divaricata Mart.) extracts.

This study explores the phytochemical composition of leaf extracts from Handroanthus impetiginosus (Mart.) Mattos and Luehea divaricata Mart., used in a contraceptive decoction by Mbya-Guarani women. The phytocompounds were identified by gas chro-matography-mass spectrometry, while Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, multi-elemental, and thermal analyses were used to characterise plant biomass. Notably, no phytoconstituent supporting the efficacy of these extracts as female contraceptives was found, except for a small amount (0.3%) of sitosterol. Conversely, L. divaricata leaves contained compounds like 1,3-dihydroxyacetone dimer, N-methyl-N-nitroso-2-propanamine, 2-methoxy-N-(2-methoxyethyl)-N-methyl-ethanamine, and 1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triamine, potentially exerting cytotoxic, genotoxic, and toxicogenomic effects. Due to the absence of scientific support for the claimed contraceptive efficacy and the presence of safety concerns, we propose an alternative valorisation pathway centred on the presence of phytochemicals exhibiting antimicrobial activity. This proposition is substantiated by their considerable in vitro efficacy against Botrytis cinerea.

Multi-element Contamination and Health Risks in Green Leafy Vegetables from Ambagarh Chowki, Chhattisgarh, India.

Leafy plants are commonly consumed as vegetables in India due to their high nutrient and vitamin content. This study, conducted in Ambagarh Chowki (India), investigated the accumulation potential of 52 elements (including Al, As, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cu, Dy, Er, Eu, Fe, Ga, Gd, Ge, Ho, K, La, Li, Lu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nb, Nd, Ni, P, Pb, Pr, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, Sm, Sn, Sr, Tb, Te, Th, Ti, Tl, Tm, U, V, W, Y, Yb, and Zn) in seven leafy vegetable species, namely Amaranthus tricolor L., Corchorus olitorius L., Cordia myxa L., Hibiscus sabdariffa L., Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam., Moringa oleifera Lam., and Spinacia oleracea L. Technique: Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was employed for analysis. The maximum concentrations of elements such as Al, Ba, Be, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Fe, Ga, Ge, Li, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Th, Tl, U, V, W, and REEs were observed in S. oleracea leaves, indicating their highest accumulation potential. In contrast, the maximum concentrations of As were found in H. sabdariffa leaves; Ca and Si in M. oleifera leaves; Mg, Sr, and Mo in A. tricolor leaves; and P, K, Cu, and Zn in C. myxa leaves, respectively. Twenty-one elements (Cr, Cd, Pb, Ni, Co, V, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Th, Sb, Ba, Be, Li, Sr, Tl, U, Se, Sn, and REEs) exceeded permissible limits set by the WHO. The elevated hazard index values indicated significant non-carcinogenic effects. The sources of these elements could be attributed to a combination of geological factors and agricultural practices. This study highlights the need for further investigation into the potential health implications of consuming these vegetables in the aforementioned region.

Contamination, speciation, and health risk assessment of arsenic in leafy vegetables in Ambagarh Chowki (India).

Green leafy vegetables are essential for a balanced diet, providing vital nutrients for overall well-being. However, concerns arise due to contamination with toxic substances, such as arsenic, posing risks to food safety and human health. This study analyzes inorganic (iAs), monomethyl (MMA), and dimethyl arsenic (DMA) in specific leafy vegetables (Amaranthus tricolor L., Corchorus olitorius L., Cordia myxa L., Hibiscus sabdariffa L., Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam., Moringa oleifera Lam., and Spinacia oleracea L.) grown in the heavily polluted Ambagarh Chouki region, Chhattisgarh, India. Concentrations of DMA, MMA, and iAs ranged from 0 to 155, 0 to 7, and 131 to 3579 mg·kg-1, respectively. The health quotient (HQ) for iAs ranged between 0.37 and 3.78, with an average value of 2.58 ± 1.08.

4,7-Diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline methanol hemisolvate.

The asymmetric unit of the title compound, C24H16N2·0.5CH3OH, is comprised of two independent bathophenanthroline mol-ecules (systematic name: 4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline) and one methanol mol-ecule. The bathophenanthroline mol-ecules are not planar as there is a considerable rotation of all terminal phenyl rings with respect to the central phenanthroline units [dihedral angles in the range 52.21 (12)-62.14 (10)°]. In addition, a non-negligible torsion is apparent in one of the phenanthroline units: the angle between the mean planes of the two pyridine rings is 14.84 (13)°. The methanol solvent mol-ecule is linked to both N atoms of a bathophenanthroline mol-ecule through a bifurcated O-H⋯(N,N) hydrogen bond.

Metagenomic Study of Fungal Microbial Communities in Two PDO Somontano Vineyards (Huesca, Spain): Effects of Age, Plant Genotype, and Initial Phytosanitary Status on the Priming and Selection of their Associated Microorganisms.

The study of microbial communities associated with different plants of agronomic interest has allowed, in recent years, to answer a number of questions related to the role and influence of certain microbes in key aspects of their autoecology, such as improving the adaptability of the plant host to different abiotic or biotic stresses. In this study, we present the results of the characterization, through both high-throughput sequencing and classical microbiological methods, of the fungal microbial communities associated with grapevine plants in two vineyards of different ages and plant genotypes located in the same biogeographical unit. The study is configured as an approximation to the empirical demonstration of the concept of "microbial priming" by analyzing the alpha- and beta-diversity present in plants from two plots subjected to the same bioclimatic regime to detect differences in the structure and taxonomic composition of the populations. The results were compared with the inventories of fungal diversity obtained by culture-dependent methods to establish, where appropriate, correlations between both microbial communities. Metagenomic data showed a differential enrichment of the microbial communities in the two vineyards studied, including the populations of plant pathogens. This is tentatively explained due to factors such as the different time of exposure to microbial infection, different plant genotype, and different starting phytosanitary situation. Thus, results suggest that each plant genotype recruits differential fungal communities and presents different profiles of associated potential microbial antagonists or communities of pathogenic species.

Chemical Constituents and Antimicrobial Activity of a Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis.) P. Karst. Aqueous Ammonia Extract.

Mushroom extracts have shown potential as a source of new antimicrobial agents. This study investigates the chemical profile of an aqueous ammonia extract obtained from the carpophores of Ganoderma lucidum, which grows on Quercus ilex trees, and explores its valorization as a biorational. The major chemical constituents of the extract, identified through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, include acetamide, oleic acid, 1,2,3,4-butanetetrol, monomethyl azelate, undecane, and palmitic acid. The anti-oomycete and antifungal activity of G. lucidum extract was evaluated against Phytophthora cinnamomi, the primary threat to Quercus spp. in the dehesa biome, as well as three Botryosphaeriaceae fungi. In vitro tests revealed minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of 187.5 µg·mL-1 against P. cinnamomi and 187.5-1000 µg·mL-1 against the fungi. Furthermore, conjugation of the G. lucidum extract with chitosan oligomers (COS) synergistically enhanced its antimicrobial activity, resulting in MIC values of 78.12 and 375-500 µg·mL-1 against P. cinnamomi and the fungi, respectively. These MIC values are among the highest reported to date for natural products against these phytopathogens. Subsequent ex situ testing of the COS-G. lucidum conjugate complex on artificially inoculated Q. ilex excised stems resulted in high protection against P. cinnamomi at a dose of 782 µg·mL-1. These findings support the potential utilization of this resource from the dehesa ecosystem to protect the holm oak, aligning with sustainable and circular economy approaches.

Silene uniflora Extracts for Strawberry Postharvest Protection.

Halophytes are gaining considerable attention due to their applications in saline agriculture, phytoremediation, medicine, and secondary metabolite production. This study investigated the bioactive components present in Silene uniflora (sea campion) hydromethanolic extract, and their antimicrobial activity was evaluated both in vitro and ex situ against two strawberry phytopathogens, namely Botrytis cinerea (grey mold) and Colletotrichum nymphaeae (anthracnose fruit rot). The main identified phytochemicals were mome inositol, saturated fatty acid esters, and cyclotetracosane. In vitro tests demonstrated complete inhibition of the growth of B. cinerea and C. nymphaeae at extract concentrations of 1000 and 1500 µg·mL-1, respectively, with an activity comparable to that of fosetyl-Al and substantially higher than that of azoxystrobin. This activity was improved upon conjugation with chitosan oligomers (COS), yielding inhibition values of 750 and 1000 µg·mL-1. The COS-S. uniflora conjugate complexes were then tested as protective treatments for postharvest storage of strawberry fruit, resulting in high protection against artificially inoculated B. cinerea and C. nymphaeae at doses of 3750 and 5000 µg·mL-1, respectively. The reported results open the door to the valorization of this halophyte as a source of biorationals for strawberry protection.

A review on arsenic in the environment: bio-accumulation, remediation, and disposal.

Arsenic is a widespread serious environmental pollutant as a food chain contaminant and non-threshold carcinogen. Arsenic transfer through the crops-soil-water system and animals is one of the most important pathways of human exposure and a measure of phytoremediation. Exposure occurs primarily from the consumption of contaminated water and foods. Various chemical technologies are utilized for As removal from contaminated water and soil, but they are very costly and difficult for large-scale cleaning of water and soil. In contrast, phytoremediation utilizes green plants to remove As from a contaminated environment. A large number of terrestrial and aquatic weed flora have been identified so far for their hyper metal removal capacity. In the panorama presented herein, the latest state of the art on methods of bioaccumulation, transfer mechanism of As through plants and animals, and remediation that encompass the use of physicochemical and biological processes, i.e., microbes, mosses, lichens, ferns, algae, and macrophytes have been assessed. Since these bioremediation approaches for the clean-up of this contaminant are still at the initial experimental stages, some have not been recognized at full scale. Nonetheless, extensive research on these primitive plants as bio-accumulators can be instrumental in controlling arsenic exposure and rehabilitation and may result in major progress to solve the problem on a worldwide scale.

A review on arsenic in the environment: contamination, mobility, sources, and exposure.

Arsenic is one of the regulated hazard materials in the environment and a persistent pollutant creating environmental, agricultural and health issues and posing a serious risk to humans. In the present review, sources and mobility of As in various compartments of the environment (air, water, soil and sediment) around the World are comprehensively investigated, along with measures of health hazards. Multiple atomic spectrometric approaches have been applied for total and speciation analysis of As chemical species. The LoD values are basically under 1 µg L-1, which is sufficient for the analysis of As or its chemical species in environmental samples. Both natural and anthropogenic sources contributed to As in air, while fine particulate matter tends to have higher concentrations of arsenic and results in high concentrations of As up to a maximum of 1660 ng m-3 in urban areas. Sources for As in natural waters (as dissolved or in particulate form) can be attributed to natural deposits, agricultural and industrial effluents, for which the maximum concentration of 2000 µg L-1 was found in groundwater. Sources for As in soil can be the initial contents, fossil fuel burning products, industrial effluents, pesticides, and so on, with a maximum reported concentration up to 4600 mg kg-1. Sources for As in sediments can be attributed to their reservoirs, with a maximum reported concentration up to 2500 mg kg-1. It is notable that some reported concentrations of As in the environment are several times higher than permissible limits. However, many aspects of arsenic environmental chemistry including contamination of the environment, quantification, mobility, removal and health hazards are still unclear.