Linescan Lattice Microscopy: A Technique for the Accurate Measurement and Mapping of Lattice Spacing and Strain with Atomic Force Microscopy.

Lateral resolution and accuracy in scanning probe microscopies are limited by the nonideality of piezoelectric scanning elements due to phenomena including nonlinearity, hysteresis, and creep. By taking advantage of the well-established atomic-scale stick-slip phenomenon in contact-mode atomic force microscopy, we have developed a method for simultaneously indexing and measuring the spacing of surface atomic lattices using only Fourier analysis of unidirectional linescan data. The first step of the technique is to calibrate the X-piezo response using the stick-slip behavior itself. This permits lateral calibration to better than 1% error between 2.5 nm and 9 µm, without the use of calibration gratings. Lattice indexing and lattice constant determination are demonstrated in this way on the NaCl(001) crystal surface. After piezo calibration, lattice constant measurement on a natural bulk MoS2(0001) surface is demonstrated with better than 0.2% error. This is used to measure nonuniform thermal mismatch strain for chemical vapor deposition (CVD)-grown monolayer MoS2 as small as 0.5%. A spatial mapping technique for the lattice spacing is developed and demonstrated, with absolute accuracy better than 0.2% and relative accuracy better than 0.1%, within a map of 12.5 × 12.5 nm2 pixels using bulk highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) and MoS2 as reference materials.

Thermally Induced Structural Evolution of Silicon- and Oxygen-Containing Hydrogenated Amorphous Carbon: A Combined Spectroscopic and Molecular Dynamics Simulation Investigation.

Silicon- and oxygen-containing hydrogenated amorphous carbon (a-C:H:Si:O) coatings are amorphous thin-film materials composed of hydrogenated amorphous carbon (a-C:H), doped with silicon and oxygen. Compared to a-C:H, a-C:H:Si:O exhibits much lower susceptibility to oxidative degradation and higher thermal stability, making a-C:H:Si:O attractive for many applications. However, the physical mechanisms for this improved behavior are not understood. Here, the thermally induced structural evolution of a-C:H:Si:O was investigated in situ by X-ray photoelectron and absorption spectroscopy, as well as molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The spectroscopy results indicate that upon high vacuum annealing, two thermally activated processes with a Gaussian distribution of activation energies with mean value E and standard deviation σ take place in a-C:H:Si:O: (a) ordering and clustering of sp2 carbon ( E ± σ = 0.22 ± 0.08 eV) and (b) conversion of sp3- to sp2-bonded carbon ( E ± σ = 3.0 ± 1.1 eV). The experimental results are in qualitative agreement with the outcomes of MD simulations performed using a ReaxFF potential. The MD simulations also indicate that the higher thermal stability of a-C:H:Si:O compared to a-C:H (with similar fraction of sp2-bonded carbon and hydrogen content) derives from the significantly lower fraction of strained carbon-carbon sp3 bonds in a-C:H:Si:O compared to a-C:H, which are more likely to break at elevated temperatures.

Quantitative Evaluation of the Carbon Hybridization State by Near Edge X-ray Absorption Fine Structure Spectroscopy.

The characterization of the local bonding configuration of carbon in carbon-based materials is of paramount importance since the properties of such materials strongly depend on the distribution of carbon hybridization states, the local ordering, and the degree of hydrogenation. Carbon 1s near edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy is one of the most powerful techniques for gaining insights into the bonding configuration of near-surface carbon atoms. The common methodology for quantitatively evaluating the carbon hybridization state using C 1s NEXAFS measurements, which is based on the analysis of the sample of interest and of a highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) reference sample, was reviewed and critically assessed, noting that inconsistencies are found in the literature in applying this method. A theoretical rationale for the specific experimental conditions to be used for the acquisition of HOPG reference spectra is presented together with the potential sources of uncertainty and errors in the correctly computed fraction of sp(2)-bonded carbon. This provides a specific method for analyzing the distribution of carbon hybridization state using NEXAFS spectroscopy. As an illustrative example, a hydrogenated amorphous carbon film was analyzed using this method and showed good agreement with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (which is surface sensitive). Furthermore, the results were consistent with analysis from Raman spectroscopy (which is not surface sensitive), indicating the absence of a structurally different near-surface region in this particular thin film material. The present work can assist surface scientists in the analysis of NEXAFS spectra for the accurate characterization of the structure of carbon-based materials.

Accounting for nanometer-thick adventitious carbon contamination in X-ray absorption spectra of carbon-based materials.

Near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy is a powerful technique for characterizing the composition and bonding state of nanoscale materials and the top few nanometers of bulk and thin film specimens. When coupled with imaging methods like photoemission electron microscopy, it enables chemical imaging of materials with nanometer-scale lateral spatial resolution. However, analysis of NEXAFS spectra is often performed under the assumption of structural and compositional homogeneity within the nanometer-scale depth probed by this technique. This assumption can introduce large errors when analyzing the vast majority of solid surfaces due to the presence of complex surface and near-surface structures such as oxides and contamination layers. An analytical methodology is presented for removing the contribution of these nanoscale overlayers from NEXAFS spectra of two-layered systems to provide a corrected photoabsorption spectrum of the substrate. This method relies on the subtraction of the NEXAFS spectrum of the overlayer adsorbed on a reference surface from the spectrum of the two-layer system under investigation, where the thickness of the overlayer is independently determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). This approach is applied to NEXAFS data acquired for one of the most challenging cases: air-exposed hard carbon-based materials with adventitious carbon contamination from ambient exposure. The contribution of the adventitious carbon was removed from the as-acquired spectra of ultrananocrystalline diamond (UNCD) and hydrogenated amorphous carbon (a-C:H) to determine the intrinsic photoabsorption NEXAFS spectra of these materials. The method alters the calculated fraction of sp(2)-hybridized carbon from 5 to 20% and reveals that the adventitious contamination can be described as a layer containing carbon and oxygen ([O]/[C] = 0.11 ± 0.02) with a thickness of 0.6 ± 0.2 nm and a fraction of sp(2)-bonded carbon of 0.19 ± 0.03. This method can be generally applied to the characterization of surfaces and interfaces in several research fields and technological applications.

Nanoscale Structure-Property Relations in Self-Regulated Polymer-Grafted Nanoparticle Composite Structures.

Using a model system of poly(methyl methacrylate)-grafted silica nanoparticles (PMMA-NP) and poly(styrene-ran-acrylonitrile) (SAN), we generate unique polymer nanocomposite (PNC) morphologies by balancing the degree of surface enrichment, phase separation, and wetting within the films. Depending on the annealing temperature and time, thin films undergo different stages of phase evolution, resulting in homogeneously dispersed systems at low temperatures, enriched PMMA-NP layers at the PNC interfaces at intermediate temperatures, and three-dimensional bicontinuous structures of PMMA-NP pillars sandwiched between two PMMA-NP wetting layers at high temperatures. Using a combination of atomic force microscopy (AFM), AFM nanoindentation, contact angle goniometry, and optical microscopy, we show that these self-regulated structures lead to nanocomposites with increased elastic modulus, hardness, and thermal stability compared to analogous PMMA/SAN blends. These studies demonstrate the ability to reliably control the size and spatial correlations of both the surface-enriched and phase-separated nanocomposite microstructures, which have attractive technological applications where properties such as wettability, toughness, and wear resistance are important. In addition, these morphologies lend themselves to substantially broader applications, including: (1) structural color applications, (2) tuning optical adsorption, and (3) barrier coatings.