DNA replication through hard-to-replicate sites, including both highly transcribed RNA Pol II and Pol III genes, requires the S. pombe Pfh1 helicase.

Replication forks encounter impediments as they move through the genome, including natural barriers due to stable protein complexes and highly transcribed genes. Unlike lesions generated by exogenous damage, natural barriers are encountered in every S phase. Like humans, Schizosaccharomyces pombe encodes a single Pif1 family DNA helicase, Pfh1. Here, we show that Pfh1 is required for efficient fork movement in the ribosomal DNA, the mating type locus, tRNA, 5S ribosomal RNA genes, and genes that are highly transcribed by RNA polymerase II. In addition, converged replication forks accumulated at all of these sites in the absence of Pfh1. The effects of Pfh1 on DNA replication are likely direct, as it had high binding to sites whose replication was impaired in its absence. Replication in the absence of Pfh1 resulted in DNA damage specifically at those sites that bound high levels of Pfh1 in wild-type cells and whose replication was slowed in its absence. Cells depleted of Pfh1 were inviable if they also lacked the human TIMELESS homolog Swi1, a replisome component that stabilizes stalled forks. Thus, Pfh1 promotes DNA replication and separation of converged replication forks and suppresses DNA damage at hard-to-replicate sites.

Pfh1 Is an Accessory Replicative Helicase that Interacts with the Replisome to Facilitate Fork Progression and Preserve Genome Integrity.

Replicative DNA helicases expose the two strands of the double helix to the replication apparatus, but accessory helicases are often needed to help forks move past naturally occurring hard-to-replicate sites, such as tightly bound proteins, RNA/DNA hybrids, and DNA secondary structures. Although the Schizosaccharomyces pombe 5'-to-3' DNA helicase Pfh1 is known to promote fork progression, its genomic targets, dynamics, and mechanisms of action are largely unknown. Here we address these questions by integrating genome-wide identification of Pfh1 binding sites, comprehensive analysis of the effects of Pfh1 depletion on replication and DNA damage, and proteomic analysis of Pfh1 interaction partners by immunoaffinity purification mass spectrometry. Of the 621 high confidence Pfh1-binding sites in wild type cells, about 40% were sites of fork slowing (as marked by high DNA polymerase occupancy) and/or DNA damage (as marked by high levels of phosphorylated H2A). The replication and integrity of tRNA and 5S rRNA genes, highly transcribed RNA polymerase II genes, and nucleosome depleted regions were particularly Pfh1-dependent. The association of Pfh1 with genomic integrity at highly transcribed genes was S phase dependent, and thus unlikely to be an artifact of high transcription rates. Although Pfh1 affected replication and suppressed DNA damage at discrete sites throughout the genome, Pfh1 and the replicative DNA polymerase bound to similar extents to both Pfh1-dependent and independent sites, suggesting that Pfh1 is proximal to the replication machinery during S phase. Consistent with this interpretation, Pfh1 co-purified with many key replisome components, including the hexameric MCM helicase, replicative DNA polymerases, RPA, and the processivity clamp PCNA in an S phase dependent manner. Thus, we conclude that Pfh1 is an accessory DNA helicase that interacts with the replisome and promotes replication and suppresses DNA damage at hard-to-replicate sites. These data provide insight into mechanisms by which this evolutionarily conserved helicase helps preserve genome integrity.

Effects of aging and hypoxia-inducible factor-1 activity on angiogenic cell mobilization and recovery of perfusion after limb ischemia.

Ischemia is a stimulus for production of angiogenic cytokines that activate local vascular cells and mobilize angiogenic cells to the circulation. These responses are impaired in elderly patients with peripheral arterial disease. Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1 mediates adaptive responses to ischemia, including production of angiogenic cytokines. In this study, we demonstrate that aging and HIF-1 loss-of-function impair the expression of multiple angiogenic cytokines, mobilization of angiogenic cells, maintenance of tissue viability, and recovery of limb perfusion following femoral artery ligation. We show that HIF-1 directly activates transcription of the gene encoding stem cell factor and that mice lacking the cognate receptor C-KIT have impaired recovery from ischemia. Administration of AdCA5, an adenovirus encoding a constitutively active form of HIF-1alpha, improved the recovery of perfusion in older mice to levels similar to those in young mice. Injection of AdCA5 into nonischemic limb was sufficient to increase the number of circulating angiogenic cells. These results indicate that HIF-1 activity is necessary and sufficient for the mobilization of angiogenic cells and that HIF-1alpha gene therapy can counteract the pathological effects of aging in a mouse model of limb ischemia.

Proteomics of yeast telomerase identified Cdc48-Npl4-Ufd1 and Ufd4 as regulators of Est1 and telomere length.

Almost 400 genes affect yeast telomere length, including Est1, which is critical for recruitment and activation of telomerase. Here we use mass spectrometry to identify novel telomerase regulators by their co-purification with the telomerase holoenzyme. In addition to all known subunits, over 100 proteins are telomerase associated, including all three subunits of the essential Cdc48-Npl4-Ufd1 complex as well as three E3 ubiquitin ligases. The Cdc48 complex is evolutionarily conserved and targets ubiquitinated proteins for degradation. Est1 levels are ∼40-fold higher in cells with reduced Cdc48, yet, paradoxically, telomeres are shorter. Furthermore, Est1 is ubiquitinated and its cell cycle-regulated abundance is lost in Cdc48-deficient cells. Deletion of the telomerase-associated E3 ligase, Ufd4, in cdc48-3 cells further increases Est1 abundance but suppresses the telomere length phenotype of the single mutant. These data argue that, in concert with Ufd4, the Cdc48 complex regulates telomerase by controlling the level and activity of Est1.

The Pif1 family helicase Pfh1 facilitates telomere replication and has an RPA-dependent role during telomere lengthening.

Pif1 family helicases are evolutionary conserved 5'-3' DNA helicases. Pfh1, the sole Schizosaccharomyces pombe Pif1 family DNA helicase, is essential for maintenance of both nuclear and mitochondrial DNAs. Here we show that its nuclear functions include roles in telomere replication and telomerase action. Pfh1 promoted semi-conservative replication through telomeric DNA, as replication forks moved more slowly through telomeres when Pfh1 levels were reduced. Unlike other organisms, S. pombe cells overexpressing Pfh1 displayed markedly longer telomeres. Because this lengthening occurred in the absence of homologous recombination but not in a replication protein A mutant (rad11-D223Y) that has defects in telomerase function, it is probably telomerase-mediated. The effects of Pfh1 on telomere replication and telomere length are likely direct as Pfh1 exhibited high telomere binding in cells expressing endogenous levels of Pfh1. These findings argue that Pfh1 is a positive regulator of telomere length and telomere replication.

Telomeres: structures in need of unwinding.

Telomeres protect the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes from being recognized and processed as double strand breaks. In most organisms, telomeric DNA is highly repetitive with a high GC-content. Moreover, the G residues are concentrated in the strand running 3'-5' from the end of the chromosome towards its center. This G-rich strand is extended to form a 3' single-stranded tail that can form unusual secondary structures such as T-loops and G-quadruplex DNA. Both the duplex repeats and the single-stranded G-tail are assembled into stable protein-DNA complexes. The unique architecture, high GC content, and multi-protein association create particularly stable protein-DNA complexes that are a challenge for replication, recombination, and transcription. Helicases utilize the energy of nucleotide hydrolysis to unwind base paired nucleic acids and, in some cases, to displace proteins from them. The telomeric functions of helicases from the RecQ, Pifl, FANCJ, and DNA2 families are reviewed in this article. We summarize data showing that perturbation of their telomere activities can lead to telomere dysfunction and genome instability and in some cases human disease.

Spermidine/spermine N(1)-acetyltransferase-1 binds to hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha) and RACK1 and promotes ubiquitination and degradation of HIF-1alpha.

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) is a master regulator of oxygen homeostasis that controls the expression of genes encoding proteins that play key roles in angiogenesis, erythropoiesis, and glucose/energy metabolism. The stability of the HIF-1alpha subunit is regulated by ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. In aerobic cells, O(2)-dependent prolyl hydroxylation of HIF-1alpha is required for binding of the von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor protein VHL, which then recruits the Elongin C ubiquitin-ligase complex. SSAT2 (spermidine/spermine N-acetyltransferase-2) binds to HIF-1alpha and promotes its ubiquitination/degradation by stabilizing the interaction of VHL and Elongin C. Treatment of cells with heat shock protein HSP90 inhibitors induces the degradation of HIF-1alpha even under hypoxic conditions. HSP90 competes with RACK1 for binding to HIF-1alpha, and HSP90 inhibition leads to increased binding of RACK1, which recruits the Elongin C ubiquitin-ligase complex to HIF-1alpha in an O(2)-independent manner. In this work, we demonstrate that SSAT1, which shares 46% amino acid identity with SSAT2, also binds to HIF-1alpha and promotes its ubiquitination/degradation. However, in contrast to SSAT2, SSAT1 acts by stabilizing the interaction of HIF-1alpha with RACK1. Thus, the paralogs SSAT1 and SSAT2 play complementary roles in promoting O(2)-independent and O(2)-dependent degradation of HIF-1alpha.

Calcineurin promotes hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha expression by dephosphorylating RACK1 and blocking RACK1 dimerization.

Oxygen homeostasis represents an essential organizing principle of metazoan evolution and biology. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) is a master regulator of transcriptional responses to changes in O2 concentration. HIF-1 is a heterodimer of HIF-1alpha and HIF-1beta subunits. O2-dependent degradation of the HIF-1alpha subunit is mediated by prolyl hydroxylase, von Hippel-Lindau protein (VHL)/Elongin-C E3 ubiquitin ligase, and the proteasome. O2-independent degradation of HIF-1alpha is regulated by the competition of RACK1 and HSP90 for binding to HIF-1alpha. RACK1 binding results in the recruitment of the Elongin-C E3 ubiquitin ligase, leading to VHL-independent ubiquitination and degradation of HIF-1alpha. In this report, we show that calcineurin inhibits the ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of HIF-1alpha. Calcineurin is a serine/threonine phosphatase that is activated by calcium and calmodulin. The phosphatase activity of calcineurin is required for its regulation of HIF-1alpha. RACK1 binds to the catalytic domain of calcineurin and is required for HIF-1alpha degradation induced by the calcineurin inhibitor cyclosporine A. Elongin-C and HIF-1alpha each bind to RACK1 and dimerization of RACK1 is required to recruit Elongin-C to HIF-1alpha. Phosphorylation of RACK1 promotes its dimerization and dephosphorylation by calcineurin inhibits dimerization. Serine 146 within the dimerization domain is phosphorylated and mutation of serine 146 impairs RACK1 dimerization and HIF-1alpha degradation. These results indicate that intracellular calcium levels can regulate HIF-1alpha expression by modulating calcineurin activity and RACK1 dimerization.

Spermidine/spermine-N1-acetyltransferase 2 is an essential component of the ubiquitin ligase complex that regulates hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha.

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) is a heterodimeric transcription factor that functions as a master regulator of oxygen homeostasis. The HIF-1alpha subunit is subjected to O(2)-dependent prolyl hydroxylation leading to ubiquitination by the von Hippel-Lindau protein (VHL)-Elongin C ubiquitin-ligase complex and degradation by the 26 S proteasome. In this study, we demonstrate that spermidine/spermine-N(1)-acetyltransferase (SSAT) 2 plays an essential role in this process. SSAT2 binds to HIF-1alpha, VHL, and Elongin C and promotes ubiquitination of hydroxylated HIF-1alpha by stabilizing the interaction of VHL and Elongin C. Multivalent interactions by SSAT2 provide a mechanism to ensure efficient complex formation, which is necessary for the extremely rapid ubiquitination and degradation of HIF-1alpha that is observed in oxygenated cells.