Priorities for future research into asthma diagnostic tools: A PAN-EU consensus exercise from the European asthma research innovation partnership (EARIP).

The diagnosis of asthma is currently based on clinical history, physical examination and lung function, and to date, there are no accurate objective tests either to confirm the diagnosis or to discriminate between different types of asthma. This consensus exercise reviews the state of the art in asthma diagnosis to identify opportunities for future investment based on the likelihood of their successful development, potential for widespread adoption and their perceived impact on asthma patients. Using a two-stage e-Delphi process and a summarizing workshop, a group of European asthma experts including health professionals, researchers, people with asthma and industry representatives ranked the potential impact of research investment in each technique or tool for asthma diagnosis and monitoring. After a systematic review of the literature, 21 statements were extracted and were subject of the two-stage Delphi process. Eleven statements were scored 3 or more and were further discussed and ranked in a face-to-face workshop. The three most important diagnostic/predictive tools ranked were as follows: "New biological markers of asthma (eg genomics, proteomics and metabolomics) as a tool for diagnosis and/or monitoring," "Prediction of future asthma in preschool children with reasonable accuracy" and "Tools to measure volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in exhaled breath."

[Autologous blood pleurodesis for treatment of spontaneous pneumothorax and persistent air leak in pediatric patients]. / Pleurodesis con sangre autóloga en el tratamiento del neumotórax en pacientes pediátricos.

AIM OF THE STUDY: Recurrent spontaneous pneumothorax (SP) and persistent air leak (PAL) are a therapeutic challenge in some patients. Autologous blood pleurodesis (ABP) is an alternative treatment, but its usefulness in pediatric patients has not been determined yet. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Retrospective study of pediatric patients treated with ABP at our institution between 2010 and 2014, with special assessment of its indications, description of the technique, volume of blood used, complications and outcomes. RESULTS: During this period, 29 patients were treated for SP. 5 of them (17.2%) received ABP. Indications were: 2 patients with recurrent SP after thoracoscopic bullae resection and pleurodesis and 3 patients with PAL (1 after thoracoscopic bullae resection and 2 in lung transplantation candidates who were not suitable for surgery). Median age was 14.3 years (11.9-16.6) and volume of blood used was 50 ml (26-60). The air leak stopped in a median of 2.6 days (1-7). One patient needed a second ABP for PAL and another one presented an ipsilateral recurrence of SP after ABP. Follow up time was 2.21 years (0.49-3.42). No complications were observed. CONCLUSIONS: ABP is a cheap, safe and easy to perform procedure and may be considered as a therapeutic option in some pediatric patients with SP or PAL.

OBJETTIVOS: Los neumotórax recurrentes y la fuga aérea persistente (FAP) plantean dificultades terapéuticas en determinados pacientes. La pleurodesis con sangre autóloga (PSA) constituye una alternativa en su tratamiento, aunque su utilidad en pacientes pediátricos no ha sido determinada. MATERIAL Y METODOS: Estudio retrospectivo de los pacientes pediátricos tratados con PSA en nuestro centro entre los años 2010 y 2014, centrado en las indicaciones, descripción de la técnica de administración, cantidad de sangre empleada, complicaciones y resultados. RESULTADOS: Durante este periodo, 29 pacientes presentaron neumotórax espontáneos. En 5 de ellos (17,2%) se realizó PSA como método de rescate. Las indicaciones fueron: 2 recidivas de neumotórax tras resección de bullas y pleurodesis y 3 casos de fuga aérea persistente (1 tras resección toracoscópica de bullas subpleurales y en 2 candidatos a trasplante pulmonar con bullas en los que se descartó la cirugía). La mediana de edad fue de 14,3 años (11,9-16,6) y la cantidad de sangre empleada 50 ml (26-60). La fuga aérea se resolvió en una media de 2,6 días (1-7). Un paciente requirió una nueva PSA por persistencia de fuga aérea tras la primera administración y otro presentó una recurrencia posterior del neumotórax. El tiempo de seguimiento fue de 2.21 años (0,49-3,42). No se describieron otras complicaciones. CONCLUSIONES: La PSA es un método de fácil aplicación, seguro y económico que puede ser considerado como opción terapéutica de rescate en determinados pacientes pediátricos con neumotórax o fuga aérea persistente.

Assessing pulmonary hypertensive vascular disease in childhood. Data from the Spanish registry.

RATIONALE: There is a lack of knowledge regarding the epidemiology, clinical characterization, and survival in pediatric pulmonary hypertension. OBJECTIVES: To describe the epidemiology, outcomes, and risk factors for mortality in pediatric pulmonary hypertension in Spain. METHODS: We analyzed data from the Spanish Registry for Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension. From January 2009 to June 2012, a total of 225 patients diagnosed with pulmonary hypertension in 1998 or after were collected from 21 referral and nonreferral centers. We included all Nice etiologies, estimated incidence and prevalence of pulmonary hypertension in the Spanish pediatric population, and analyzed risk factors for mortality (Nice etiologic group, clinical and hemodynamic variables). Patients were classified as follows: group I, pulmonary arterial hypertension (n = 142; 61%); group II, left heart disease (n = 31; 14%); group III, respiratory disease (n = 41; 18%); group IV, thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (n = 2; 1%); or group V, mostly inherited metabolic diseases (n = 10; 4.5%). Of the patients studied, 31% had multifactorial pulmonary hypertension. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Mean age at diagnosis was 4.3 ± 4.9 years (50% < 2 yr). Survival rates at 1 and 3 years were 80 and 74% for the whole cohort, and 89 and 85% for patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Independent risk factors for mortality included an etiologic group other than pulmonary arterial hypertension (P < 0.001), age at diagnosis younger than 2 years old (P < 0.001), advanced functional class at diagnosis (P < 0.001), and high right atrial pressure at diagnosis (P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: In moderate to severe pediatric pulmonary hypertension, the prognosis is better in pulmonary arterial hypertension than in other Nice categories. In pediatric pulmonary hypertension age at diagnosis younger than 2 years is a risk factor for mortality, in addition to the previously established risk factors.

[Hepatopulmonary syndrome in children: evaluation and treatment]. / Síndrome hepatopulmonar en niños: evaluación y tratamiento.

Hepatopulmonary syndrome is a rare disease that affects patients of any age with acute or chronic liver disease. Its diagnosis is based on the presence of hypoxemia and the demonstration of an intrapulmonary shunting by echocardiography with contrast or perfusion lung scanning. Pulmonary angiography is useful to demonstrate macroscopic arteriovenous communications. We describe five paediatric cases with a different natural history and evolution. Two of them were diagnosed with hepatopulmonary syndrome type 1, another two with type 2 and a fifth one with type 1 and 2, which required a different therapeutic approach in each case.

[Spanish version of the TNO-AZL preschool children quality of life questionnaire (TAPQOL)]. / Versión española del TAPQOL: calidad de vida relacionada con la salud en niños de 3 meses a 5 años.

OBJECTIVES: To obtain a Spanish version of the TNO-AZL Preschool Children Quality of Life Questionnaire (TAPQOL) that would be both semantically and culturally equivalent to the original. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The TAPQOL questionnaire was designed to measure health-related quality of life in children aged 3 months to 5 years and contains 43 questions distributed in 12 subdimensions. The Spanish version was obtained by using the forward/back-translation method with expert, bilingual translators. Cognitive debriefing interviews were carried out with the parents of healthy children and with those of children with respiratory disease. RESULTS: During the adaptation phase, four items were modified after input from the authors of the original version to retain the meaning of the original. At the end of the adaptation process, 37 of the 43 items were classified as A, i.e. without difficulty in the adaptation. Four mothers and two fathers participated in the cognitive debriefing interviews. Four had secondary level education, and two had university level education. Their children were aged between 16 and 60 months. The average time taken to complete the questionnaire was 13.5 minutes. No comprehension problems regarding the questionnaire's content were found, and no items were modified after this phase of the study. The mothers of children with respiratory disease considered the questions related to their children's symptoms to be appropriate. CONCLUSIONS: The Spanish version of the TAPQOL has proven to be acceptable and culturally equivalent to the original version. Future studies should investigate the psychometric properties of this questionnaire and compare them with those of the original version.

Successful use of cinacalcet to treat parathyroid-related hypercalcemia in two pediatric patients.

Two pediatric patients with different causes of hyperparathyroidism are reported. First patient is a 13-year-old male with severe hypercalcemia due to left upper parathyroid gland adenoma. After successful surgery, calcium and phosphate levels normalized, but parathormone levels remained elevated. Further studies revealed a second adenoma in the right gland. The second patient is a 13-year-old female with uncommon hypercalcemia symptoms. Presence of pathogenic calcium-sensing receptor gene (CASR) mutation was found, resulting in diagnosis of symptomatic familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia. Cinacalcet, a calcium-sensing agent that increases the sensitivity of the CASR, was used in both patients with successful results. LEARNING POINTS: Hyperparathyroidism is a rare condition in pediatric patients. If not treated, it can cause serious morbidity.Genetic tests searching for CASR or MEN1 gene mutations in pediatric patients with primary hyperparathyroidism should be performed.Cinacalcet has been effective for treating different causes of hyperparathyroidism in our two pediatric patients.Treatment has been well tolerated and no side effects have been detected.

[Respiratory function assessment in cooperative patients. Part II]. / Estudio de la función pulmonar en el paciente colaborador. Parte II.

Analysis of bronchial hyperresponsiveness using bronchial provocation tests are a key feature in the diagnosis of asthma, as well as a valid tool for monitoring disease severity, clinical course, and treatment response. We review non-specific bronchial challenge tests, including pharmacological stimuli (methacholine, adenosine) and physical stimuli (exercise, hypertonic saline, cold air hyperventilation). Although there is some correlation among responses to the distinct tests, individual responses are also observed. The indication for a single test will depend on whether the procedure will be used for diagnostic or epidemiologic purposes, and on experience of its use. Frequently, complementary information will be obtained. Indirect airway challenges tests such as physical stimuli and adenosine are more specific for asthma diagnosis.

[Guidelines for the follow up of patients with bronchopulmonary dysplasia]. / Protocolo de seguimiento de los pacientes con displasia broncopulmonar.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is the most common complication of preterm birth, and remains a major problem in pediatric pulmonology units. The decision of discharging from the Neonatal Unit should be based on a thorough assessment of the condition of the patient and compliance with certain requirements, including respiratory and nutritional stability, and caregiver education on disease management. For proper control of the disease, a schedule of visits and complementary tests should be established prior to discharge, and guidelines for prevention of exacerbations and appropriate treatment should be applied. In this paper, the Working Group in Perinatal Respiratory Diseases of the Spanish Society of Pediatric Pulmonology proposes a protocol to serve as a reference for the follow up of patients with BPD among different centers and health care settings. Key factors to consider when planning discharge from the Neonatal Unit and during follow up are reviewed. Recommendations on treatment and prevention of complications are then discussed. The final section of this guide aims to provide a specific schedule for follow-up and diagnostic interventions to be performed in patients with BPD.

[Flexible bronchoscopy techniques: bronchoalveolar lavage, bronchial biopsy and transbronchial biopsy]. / Técnicas fibrobroncoscópicas especiales: lavado broncoalveolar, biopsia bronquial y biopsia transbronquial.

This article completes previous recommendations of the Techniques Group of the Spanish Society of Pediatric Pulmonologists on the practice of flexible bronchoscopy in children. We review the most frequently performed diagnostic and therapeutic procedures applied through the flexible bronchoscope: bronchoalveolar lavage, bronchial biopsy and transbronchial biopsy. Recommendations are also provided on the practice of nonbronchoscopic bronchoalveolar lavage. We review the indications and contraindications of these techniques, the equipment required, and the preparation and monitoring of the patient before, during and after the procedure. The complications of these techniques are also discussed. These recommendations may be adopted, modified or rejected according to clinical needs and constraints.

[Determining asthma treatment in children by monitoring fractional exhaled nitric oxide, sputum eosinophils and leukotriene B4]. / Monitorización del tratamiento en el asma bronquial mediante determinación de fracción exhalada de óxido nítrico, eosinófilos y leucotrieno B4 en esputo inducido de población infantil.

Sputum eosinophils and exhaled fractional nitric oxide (FENO) are markers of airway inflammation in asthma. Cytokines, cysteinyl-leukotrienes and leukotriene B4 (LTB4) are responsible for this inflammation. The aim of this study is to determine the usefulness of these markers in monitoring asthma treatment in children. FENO, sputum eosinophils, and LTB4 in induced sputum were performed in 10 children (9-15 years old). These determinations were repeated four months later, after the beginning or an increase in the treatment. FENO values tended to decrease (P=.15), pulmonary function tended to improve (P=.10), and sputum eosinophils decreased (P=.003) compared to the first determination. There were no differences in LTB4 concentrations (P=.88). Sputum eosinophils seem to be more precise than FENO in the monitoring of inflammation in asthmatic children.

[Community acquired pneumonia in children: Outpatient treatment and prevention]. / Neumonía adquirida en la comunidad: tratamiento ambulatorio y prevención.

There have been significant changes in community acquired pneumonia (CAP) in children in the last decade. These changes relate to epidemiology and clinical presentation. Resistance to antibiotics is also a changing issue. These all have to be considered when treating CAP. In this document, two of the main Spanish pediatric societies involved in the treatment of CAP in children, propose a consensus concerning therapeutic approach. These societies are the Spanish Society of Paediatric Infectious Diseases and the Spanish Society of Paediatric Chest Diseases. The Advisory Committee on Vaccines of the Spanish Association of Paediatrics (CAV-AEP) has also been involved in the prevention of CAP. An attempt is made to provide up-to-date guidelines to all paediatricians. The first part of the statement presents the approach to ambulatory, previously healthy children. We also review the prevention with currently available vaccines. In a next second part, special situations and complicated forms will be addressed.

[Community acquired pneumonia in children: Treatment of complicated cases and risk patients. Consensus statement by the Spanish Society of Paediatric Infectious Diseases (SEIP) and the Spanish Society of Paediatric Chest Diseases (SENP)]. / Neumonía adquirida en la comunidad: tratamiento de los casos complicados y en situaciones especiales. Documento de consenso de la Sociedad Española de Infectología Pediátrica (SEIP) y Sociedad Española de Neumología Pediátrica (SENP).

The incidence of community-acquired pneumonia complications has increased during the last decade. According to the records from several countries, empyema and necrotizing pneumonia became more frequent during the last few years. The optimal therapeutic approach for such conditions is still controversial. Both pharmacological management (antimicrobials and fibrinolysis), and surgical management (pleural drainage and video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery), are the subject of continuous assessment. In this paper, the Spanish Society of Paediatric Infectious Diseases and the Spanish Society of Paediatric Chest Diseases have reviewed the available evidence. Consensus treatment guidelines are proposed for complications of community-acquired pneumonia in children, focusing on parapneumonic pleural effusion. Recommendations are also provided for the increasing population of patients with underlying diseases and immunosuppression.

Induced sputum cell count and cytokine profile in atopic and non-atopic children with asthma.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Sputum induction is a semi-invasive technique used to detect and monitor airway inflammation. In this study, the cell profile, and Th1 and Th2 cytokine levels in induced sputum of asthmatic and healthy children (HC) are compared. METHODS: Sputum induction was performed in healthy and asthmatic children by inhalation of hypertonic saline solution. Differential cell count in the specimen obtained was carried out using optic microscopy. IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-10, IL-8, IL-6, IL-4, IL-5, IL-1ß, TNF-α, and IL-12p70 levels were determined in sputum sample supernatants by flow cytometry. RESULTS: Sputum induction was performed in 31 HC and 77 asthmatic children (60 atopic and 17 non-atopic asthma, NAA). Twenty-four samples were obtained in HC and 64 in patients. Median eosinophil count in atopic asthma (AA; 2%) was higher than in NAA (P = 0.02) or HC (P = 0.01). IL-4, IL-5, IFNγ, IL-2, and IL-12p70 concentrations were higher in AA than in NAA or HC. IL-8 was higher in asthmatic children (atopic and non-atopic) than in healthy ones. IL-10 was higher in the healthy group than in the AA group (P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: As compared to HC, the inflammatory profile in induced sputum of children with asthma showed an increase in proinflammatory cytokines. Concentrations of IL-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine, were lower in children with AA than in HC.

Alveolar capillary dysplasia with misalignment of pulmonary [corrected] veins: concordance between pathological and molecular diagnosis.

We report the case of a newborn with alveolar capillary dysplasia with misalignment of pulmonary veins (ACD/MPV), a rare condition of unknown etiology presenting in the neonatal period with significant persistent pulmonary hypertension. The diagnosis was made by lung biopsy and confirmed at autopsy. Specific genetic analysis demonstrated defects in the FOXF1 gene. The diagnosis of ACD/MPV requires a high level of suspicion and is made by lung biopsy or necropsy examination by a pediatric pathologist with experience in this condition. The availability of genetic testing has led to increasing diagnosis of patients with this lethal disorder and can influence their management, specifically by indicating the need for lung biopsy in a critically ill newborn.

Pleurodesis con sangre autóloga en el tratamiento del neumotórax en pacientes pediátricos / Autologous blood pleurodesis for treatment of spontaneous pneumothorax and persistent air leak in pediatric patients

Objetivos. Los neumotórax recurrentes y la fuga aérea persistente (FAP) plantean dificultades terapéuticas en determinados pacientes. La pleurodesis con sangre autóloga (PSA) constituye una alternativa en su tratamiento, aunque su utilidad en pacientes pediátricos no ha sido determinada. Material y métodos. Estudio retrospectivo de los pacientes pediátricos tratados con PSA en nuestro centro entre los años 2010 y 2014, centrado en las indicaciones, descripción de la técnica de administración, cantidad de sangre empleada, complicaciones y resultados. Resultados. Durante este periodo, 29 pacientes presentaron neumotórax espontáneos. En 5 de ellos (17,2%) se realizó PSA como método de rescate. Las indicaciones fueron: 2 recidivas de neumotórax tras resección de bullas y pleurodesis y 3 casos de fuga aérea persistente (1 tras resección toracoscópica de bullas subpleurales y en 2 candidatos a trasplante pulmonar con bullas en los que se descartó la cirugía). La mediana de edad fue de 14,3 años (11,9-16,6) y la cantidad de sangre empleada 50 ml (26-60). La fuga aérea se resolvió en una media de 2,6 días (1-7). Un paciente requirió una nueva PSA por persistencia de fuga aérea tras la primera administración y otro presentó una recurrencia posterior del neumotórax. El tiempo de seguimiento fue de 2.21 años (0,49-3,42). No se describieron otras complicaciones. Conclusiones. La PSA es un método de fácil aplicación, seguro y económico que puede ser considerado como opción terapéutica de rescate en determinados pacientes pediátricos con neumotórax o fuga aérea persistente

Aim of the study. Recurrent spontaneous pneumothorax (SP) and persistent air leak (PAL) are a therapeutic challenge in some patients. Autologous blood pleurodesis (ABP) is an alternative treatment, but its usefulness in pediatric patients has not been determined yet. Material and methods. Retrospective study of pediatric patients treated with ABP at our institution between 2010 and 2014, with special assessment of its indications, description of the technique, volume of blood used, complications and outcomes. Results. During this period, 29 patients were treated for SP. 5 of them (17.2%) received ABP. Indications were: 2 patients with recurrent SP after thoracoscopic bullae resection and pleurodesis and 3 patients with PAL (1 after thoracoscopic bullae resection and 2 in lung transplantation candidates who were not suitable for surgery). Median age was 14.3 years (11.9-16.6) and volume of blood used was 50 ml (26-60). The air leak stopped in a median of 2.6 days (1-7). One patient needed a second ABP for PAL and another one presented an ipsilateral recurrence of SP after ABP. Follow up time was 2.21 years (0.49-3.42). No complications were observed. Conclusions. ABP is a cheap, safe and easy to perform procedure and may be considered as a therapeutic option in some pediatric patients with SP or PAL

[Cost of childhood asthma in Spain: a cost evaluation model based on the prevalence]. / Coste del asma en pediatría en España: un modelo de evaluación de costes basado en la prevalencia.

INTRODUCTION: Asthma is the most common chronic disease in childhood, reduces the quality of life of children and their families, and produces high social and health care costs. In Spain, the cost of managing paediatric asthma is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the cost of managing paediatric asthma in Spain and to examine its variability depending on asthma severity. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The cost of asthma in children under 16 years in 2008 was estimated by building a costs assessment model including the factors that influence the cost of asthma in children: prevalence, distribution of disease severity, age, frequency of resources use depending on severity, and the cost of each resource. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate the underlying uncertainty depending on the variability of the estimators of resource use, the unit cost of each resource, and the prevalence. RESULTS: According to the model, the total cost of paediatric asthma in Spain is around 532 million euros, with a range of 392 to 693 million euros. Direct costs (health care costs) represent 60% of the total costs, and indirect costs (carer time), 40%. The mean annual cost per child with asthma is 1,149 euros, ranging from 403 euros for the mildest category of the disease to 5,380 euros for the most severe. CONCLUSIONS: The cost of paediatric asthma in Spain is very high and depends on disease severity. Although the most important costs are for the health care system, indirect costs are not negligible.

Bilateral lung transplantation for pediatric idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension: a multi-center experience.

Many children with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) experience disease progression despite advanced medical therapy. In these children, heart-lung or bilateral lung transplantation (BLTx) remain the only therapeutic options when other treatments fail. Data on functional outcome after BLTx in children with IPAH are limited. We report a multi-center experience of BLTx for pediatric IPAH. We performed a retrospective study including 25 centers within the International Pediatric Lung Transplant Collaborative. Children with IPAH who underwent BLTx were included (1996-2006). Twenty-three children underwent BLTx for IPAH, most of whom were in WHO class III or IV level of function pre-transplantation. At 6 months post-transplantation, 82% of children reported improvement in level of function to WHO class I. The median FEV(1) was 89% (12-126) of predicted at 12 months post-transplantation. Ten patients (44%) developed BOS at a median of 42 months (3-85), of whom five died at a median of 27 months (4-86) post-transplantation. Overall mortality was 4% at 3 months post-transplantation. The median survival for children in this cohort was 45 months (2-123). Our data suggest that BLTx is a valuable therapeutic option for children with end-stage IPAH with outcomes comparable to that after heart-lung transplantation in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension or those patients undergoing lung transplantation for other indications. In the majority of children, a good cardiopulmonary function is possible following BLTx, making BLTx a good therapeutic option and maximizing donor organ utilization by allowing more hearts to be available for children needing cardiac transplantation.

Protocolo de seguimiento de los pacientes con displasia broncopulmonar / Guidelines for the follow up of patients with bronchopulmonary dysplasia

La displasia broncopulmonar (DBP) es la secuela más prevalente del recién nacido pretérmino, y sigue suponiendo un motivo frecuente de consulta en las unidades de Neumología Pediátrica. La decisión del alta de la unidad neonatal debe apoyarse en una valoración exhaustiva de la situación clínica del paciente y en el cumplimiento de unos requisitos, que incluyen la estabilidad respiratoria y nutricional, y la instrucción a los cuidadores en el manejo domiciliario. Para un control adecuado de la enfermedad, es necesario que quede establecido, previamente al alta, un calendario de visitas y de exploraciones complementarias, y deben aplicarse las pautas de prevención de exacerbaciones y el tratamiento apropiados. El concepto de DBP como enfermedad multisistémica es fundamental en el seguimiento de los pacientes y debe ser tenido en cuenta para un buen control de la enfermedad. En este documento, el Grupo de Trabajo de Patología Respiratoria Perinatal de la Sociedad Española de Neumología Pediátrica propone un protocolo que sirva como referencia para unificar el seguimiento de los pacientes con DBP entre los diferentes centros y ámbitos asistenciales. Se revisan los aspectos a tener en cuenta en la evaluación previa al alta de la Unidad Neonatal y las principales complicaciones durante el seguimiento. Seguidamente, se detallan las recomendaciones en materia de tratamiento de la enfermedad y prevención de complicaciones, los controles tras el alta y su cronología

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is the most common complication of preterm birth, and remains a major problem in pediatric pulmonology units. The decision of discharging from the Neonatal Unit should be based on a thorough assessment of the condition of the patient and compliance with certain requirements, including respiratory and nutritional stability, and caregiver education on disease management. For proper control of the disease, a schedule of visits and complementary tests should be established prior to discharge, and guidelines for prevention of exacerbations and appropriate treatment should be applied. In this paper, the Working Group in Perinatal Respiratory Diseases of the Spanish Society of Pediatric Pulmonology proposes a protocol to serve as a reference for the follow up of patients with BPD among different centers and health care settings. Key factors to consider when planning discharge from the Neonatal Unit and during follow up are reviewed. Recommendations on treatment and prevention of complications are then discussed. The final section of this guide aims to provide a specific schedule for follow-up and diagnostic interventions to be performed in patients with BPD

Monitorización del tratamiento en el asma bronquial mediante determinación de fracción exhalada de óxido nítrico, eosinófilos y leucotrieno B4 en esputo inducido de población infantil / Determining asthma treatment in children by monitoring fractional exhaled nitric oxide, sputum eosinophils and leukotriene B4

Los eosinófilos en esputo inducido y la fracción exhalada de óxido nítrico (FENO) constituyen marcadores de inflamación en el asma, producida por citocinas, cisteinil-leucotrienos y leucotrieno B4 (LTB4). El objetivo de este trabajo es determinar su utilidad en la monitorización del tratamiento del asma en niños. Se realizó determinación de FENO, eosinófilos y LTB4 en esputo inducido a 10 niños (9-15 años) asmáticos y 4 meses después, tras iniciar o incrementar el tratamiento de base, se volvieron a repetir las mismas determinaciones. Se apreció una tendencia a la disminución de los valores de la FENO (p = 0,15), una mejoría de la función pulmonar (p = 0,10) y una disminución significativa del porcentaje de eosinófilos (p = 0,003) respecto a la determinación basal. No hubo diferencias en la concentración de LTB4 (p = 0,88). El recuento de eosinófilos en esputo parece una determinación más precisa para el seguimiento de la inflamación en los niños asmáticos que la FEno

Sputum eosinophils and exhaled fractional nitric oxide (FENO) are markers of airway inflammation in asthma. Cytokines, cysteinyl-leukotrienes and leukotriene B4 (LTB4) are responsible for this inflammation.The aim of this study is to determine the usefulness of these markers in monitoring asthma treatment in children.FENO, sputum eosinophils, and LTB4 in induced sputum were performed in 10 children (9-15 years old). These determinations were repeated four months later, after the beginning oran increase in the treatment. FENO values tended to decrease (P=.15), pulmonary function tended to improve (P=.10), and sputum eosinophils decreased (P=.003) compared to the first determination. There were no differences in LTB4 concentrations (P=.88). Sputum eosinophils seem to be more precise than FENO in the monitoring of inflammation inasthmatic children