Methods for inactivation of seafood Anisakis larvae and prevention of human anisakiasis: a mini-review.

Anisakiasis is an arising zoonosis induced by parasitic nematodes belonging to the family Anisakidae. Anisakiasis is often caused by the ingestion of larval nematodes in uncooked or minimally processed seafood dishes, which are regularly consumed by humans. Significant potential sources of infection are raw fish (e.g., sushi and sashimi) that can be found in traditional Japanese cuisine and can be part of the culinary tradition of consumption of raw or marinated fish that is particularly diffused in European countries. During the last five decades, the global prevalence of human anisakiasis has been rising, becoming an emergent major public health problem. Thus, there is an unmet need for well-defined and cost-effective methods aimed at killing Anisakis larvae, thus reducing the incidence of anisakiasis. In this mini-review, we discuss the clinical features of anisakiasis as well as the effectiveness and mechanisms of action of the main methods employed for increasing seafood safety and killing Anisakis larvae, including freezing, heating, use of high hydrostatic pressure, salting process, pepsin digestion method and use of garlic oil.

The relationship between ADHD and key cognitive phenotypes is not mediated by shared familial effects with IQ.

BACKGROUND: Twin and sibling studies have identified specific cognitive phenotypes that may mediate the association between genes and the clinical symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD is also associated with lower IQ scores. We aimed to investigate whether the familial association between measures of cognitive performance and the clinical diagnosis of ADHD is mediated through shared familial influences with IQ. METHOD: Multivariate familial models were run on data from 1265 individuals aged 6-18 years, comprising 920 participants from ADHD sibling pairs and 345 control participants. Cognitive assessments included a four-choice reaction time (RT) task, a go/no-go task, a choice-delay task and an IQ assessment. The analyses focused on the cognitive variables of mean RT (MRT), RT variability (RTV), commission errors (CE), omission errors (OE) and choice impulsivity (CI). RESULTS: Significant familial association (rF) was confirmed between cognitive performance and both ADHD (rF=0.41-0.71) and IQ (rF=-0.25 to -0.49). The association between ADHD and cognitive performance was largely independent (80-87%) of any contribution from etiological factors shared with IQ. The exception was for CI, where 49% of the overlap could be accounted for by the familial variance underlying IQ. CONCLUSIONS: The aetiological factors underlying lower IQ in ADHD seem to be distinct from those between ADHD and RT/error measures. This suggests that lower IQ does not account for the key cognitive impairments observed in ADHD. The results have implications for molecular genetic studies designed to identify genes involved in ADHD.

A high-density SNP linkage scan with 142 combined subtype ADHD sib pairs identifies linkage regions on chromosomes 9 and 16.

As part of the International Multi-centre ADHD Genetics project we completed an affected sibling pair study of 142 narrowly defined Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition combined type attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) proband-sibling pairs. No linkage was observed on the most established ADHD-linked genomic regions of 5p and 17p. We found suggestive linkage signals on chromosomes 9 and 16, respectively, with the highest multipoint nonparametric linkage signal on chromosome 16q23 at 99 cM (log of the odds, LOD=3.1) overlapping data published from the previous UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) (LOD>1, approximately 95 cM) and Dutch (LOD>1, approximately 100 cM) studies. The second highest peak in this study was on chromosome 9q22 at 90 cM (LOD=2.13); both the previous UCLA and German studies also found some evidence of linkage at almost the same location (UCLA LOD=1.45 at 93 cM; German LOD=0.68 at 100 cM). The overlap of these two main peaks with previous findings suggests that loci linked to ADHD may lie within these regions. Meta-analysis or reanalysis of the raw data of all the available ADHD linkage scan data may help to clarify whether these represent true linked loci.

No association between two polymorphisms of the serotonin transporter gene and combined type attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Several independent studies have reported association between serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) polymorphisms and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Five studies found evidence for association between the long-allele of a 44-bp insertion/deletion polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and ADHD. Another two studies corroborated this finding while a further six studies did not find such an association. For a second polymorphism within the gene, a variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) within intron 2, one study demonstrated that the 12/12 genotype was significantly less frequent in ADHD cases compared to controls, while a second study found that the 12-allele was preferentially transmitted to offspring affected with ADHD. To provide further clarification of the reported associations, we investigated the association of these two markers with ADHD in a sample of 1,020 families with 1,166 combined type ADHD cases for the International Multi-Centre ADHD Genetics project, using the Transmission Disequilibrium Test. Given the large body of work supporting the association of the promoter polymorphism and mood disorders, we further analyzed the group of subjects with ADHD plus mood disorder separately. No association was found between either of the two markers and ADHD in our large multisite study or with depression within the sample of ADHD cases.

[Concordances between autism spectrum disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]. / Concordancias entre los trastornos del espectro del autismo y el trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad.

INTRODUCTION: The current literature acknowledges an overlap of genetic, clinical and neuropsychological aspects between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), suggesting that there may be a common pattern that covers features ranging from the common genetic and structural aetiology to shared patterns of symptoms. AIM: To review the current advances in these common aspects. DEVELOPMENT: Several studies have pointed out preschool attentional difficulties as the basis of both disorders. From the genetic perspective, it is estimated that 50-72% of the genetic factors overlap between the two disorders. They also share a decrease in the volume of the corpus callosum and left frontal grey matter, as well as functional alterations such as dorsolateral prefrontal, striato-thalamic and superior parietal hypoactivation. Results are also found regarding executive functioning, with differential profiles for the two conditions, and also concerning the relationship between the repetitive and impulsive behaviours in the early stages of ASD and ensuing problems of hyperactivity. CONCLUSIONS: This new conception of the ASD-ADHD continuum, with a common neurodevelopmental basis and associated clinical features, could be of great use in clinical practice. It is suggested that this association should be taken into account when it comes to deciding on the treatment.

TITLE: Concordancias entre los trastornos del espectro del autismo y el trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad.Introduccion. La bibliografia actual reconoce un solapamiento de aspectos geneticos, clinicos y neuropsicologicos entre el trastorno del espectro del autismo (TEA) y el trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad (TDAH), sugiriendo que podria existir un patron comun que abarca desde la etiologia genetica y estructural comun hasta patrones sintomatologicos compartidos. Objetivo. Revisar los avances actuales en estos aspectos comunes. Desarrollo. Se han encontrado trabajos que apuntan a dificultades atencionales preescolares en la base de ambos trastornos. Desde la perspectiva genetica, se estima que un 50-72% de factores geneticos se solapan entre ambos trastornos. Tambien comparten una disminucion del volumen del cuerpo calloso y la sustancia gris frontal izquierda, y alteraciones funcionales como la hipoactivacion prefrontal dorsolateral, estriadotalamica y parietal superior. Se encuentran resultados en cuanto al funcionamiento ejecutivo, con perfiles diferenciales para ambas condiciones, y tambien sobre la relacion de los comportamientos repetitivos e impulsivos en las primeras etapas en TEA, con los problemas hiperactivos posteriores. Conclusiones. Esta nueva concepcion del continuo TEA-TDAH, con una base neuroevolutiva comun y caracteristicas clinicas asociadas, podria ser de gran utilidad para la practica clinica y se sugiere considerar la asociacion a la hora de plantear el tratamiento.

[Randomised controlled study of inter-hemispheric electroencephalographic coherence following assisted therapy with dolphins in children with autism spectrum disorders]. / Estudio aleatorizado controlado de la coherencia interhemisferica del electroencefalograma tras terapia asistida con delfines en niños con trastorno del espectro autista.

INTRODUCTION: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder associated with impairments in executive function, language, emotional function, and social function. Its anatomofunctional substrate is related to a disorganization of the brain's functional connections. The aim is to investigate the cerebral connections in subjects with ASD through the analysis of the interhemispheric coherence (IHC) of the quantified electroencephalogram and its changes after dolphin assisted therapy (DAT) versus therapeutical intervention without dolphins (TIWD). PATIENTS AND METHODS: The IHC was determined in 44 subjects with ASD before randomly assigning them to two therapeutic groups: DAT (n = 22) and TIWD (n = 22). The results were statistically analyzed through the multi-measure ANOVA test for within-subject (time) and between-subject (DAT vs TIWD) factors. RESULTS: The IHC showed a significant reduction (p < 0.05) for both groups in the delta, theta, beta, and alpha frequencies (p < 0.001) in the anterior frontal region (F3-F4), alpha in the central region (C3-C4) (p < 0.05), and alpha (p < 0.05) and beta (p < 0.001) in the temporal region (T3-T4). In the intersection with the specific treatment (DAT), the coherence in the alpha band increased in Fp1-Fp2 (p < 0.05), and the delta did not decline in F3-F4 (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: In 5-year-old children with ASD, DAT increases the IHC in the anterior frontal region and stabilizes the tendency to reduce the delta band in the posterior frontal region.

TITLE: Estudio aleatorizado controlado de la coherencia interhemisferica del electroencefalograma tras terapia asistida con delfines en niños con trastorno del espectro autista.Introduccion. El trastorno del espectro autista (TEA) es un trastorno del neurodesarrollo asociado con trastornos de la funcion ejecutiva, el lenguaje, la funcion emocional y la funcion social, cuyo sustrato anatomofuncional se relaciona con una desorganizacion de las conexiones funcionales cerebrales. El objetivo es investigar las conexiones cerebrales en sujetos con TEA mediante analisis de la coherencia interhemisferica (CIH) del electroencefalograma cuantificado y sus cambios tras la terapia asistida con delfines (TAD) frente a la intervencion terapeutica sin delfines (ITSD). Pacientes y metodos. Se determino la CIH en 44 sujetos con TEA antes de asignarse aleatoriamente a dos grupos de tratamiento: TAD (n = 22) e ITSD (n = 22). Los resultados se analizaron estadisticamente mediante el test de la ANOVA multimedida para los factores intrasujeto (tiempo) e intersujeto (TAD frente a ITSD). Resultados. La CIH mostro una reduccion significativa (p < 0,05) para ambos grupos en las frecuencias delta, theta, beta y alfa (p < 0,001) en la region frontal anterior (F3-F4). Se hallo tambien una reduccion en la frecuencia alfa en la region central (C3-C4) (p < 0,05), y alfa (p < 0,05) y beta (p < 0,001) en la region temporal (T3-T4). En la interseccion con el tratamiento especifico (TAD), la coherencia en la banda alfa aumento en Fp1-Fp2 (p < 0,05) y no descendio la delta en F3-F4 (p < 0,05). Conclusion. En niños de 5 años con TEA, la TAD aumenta la CIH en la region frontal anterior y estabiliza la tendencia a la reduccion de la banda delta en la region frontal posterior.

[A study of primary school teachers' knowledge of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]. / Estudio de los conocimientos de los maestros de educacion primaria sobre el trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad.

INTRODUCTION: The high prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), with at least one pupil per classroom, poses a challenge for all the professionals in contact with them, especially for teachers. AIM: To examine how much primary school teachers know about ADHD in three areas (general information, symptoms and diagnosis, and treatment). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: 125 primary school teachers from different communities answered the Knowledge of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Scale (KADDS). RESULTS: The teachers answered fewer than half the items correctly, the symptoms and diagnosis subscale being the one where they were seen to be most knowledgeable. Teachers who had had children with ADHD in class displayed greater knowledge in the areas of general information and treatment, but less on the symptoms and diagnosis subscale. 32.8% of the teachers reported feeling somewhat or totally unable to teach children with ADHD in an effective way and recommend special education as a better educational style. Teachers with specific training in ADHD obtained better scores than those who had not received such instruction. CONCLUSION: Teachers with training in ADHD are more knowledgeable and more confident about their abilities when it comes to teaching children with ADHD.

TITLE: Estudio de los conocimientos de los maestros de educacion primaria sobre el trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad.Introduccion. La alta prevalencia del trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad (TDAH), con al menos un alumno por aula, supone un reto para todos los profesionales que estan en contacto con ellos, en especial para los maestros. Objetivo. Examinar los conocimientos de los maestros de educacion primaria sobre el TDAH en tres areas (informacion general, sintomas y diagnostico, y tratamiento). Sujetos y metodos. Un total de 125 maestros de educacion primaria de varias comunidades cumplimentaron la Knowledge of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Scale (KADDS). Resultados. Los maestros contestaron de forma correcta a menos de la mitad de los items, y la subescala de sintomas y diagnostico es donde mas conocimientos demostraron. Los maestros que habian tenido niños con TDAH en clase mostraron mas conocimientos en las areas de informacion general y tratamiento, pero no en la subescala de sintomas y diagnostico. Un 32,8% de los maestros describe sentirse poco o nada capaz de enseñar eficazmente a niños con TDAH y recomienda la educacion especial como mejor estilo educativo. Los maestros con formacion especifica en TDAH obtuvieron mejores resultados en la KADDS en comparacion con los maestros sin formacion. Conclusion. Los maestros formados en TDAH demuestran un mayor grado de conocimiento y aumenta su confianza para llevar a cabo la labor educativa de los niños con TDAH.

[Comparison between the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with the DSM-5 and neuropsychological evaluation of the executive functions]. / Comparacion entre el diagnostico del trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad con el DSM-5 y la valoracion neuropsicologica de las funciones ejecutivas.

INTRODUCTION: The attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has a prevalence among 3-7% in scholar population and it is associated with learning disabilities and executive dysfunctions. AIM: To study the relationship between the ADHD diagnostic through DSM-5 criteria and the neuropshychology evaluation of executive functions. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The sample of this study consisted in 50 subjects, 12 females and 38 males, with an age between 8 and 10 years old. To evaluate the inhibitory control, we used the Stroop Test and the Continuous Performance Test (CPT), to evaluate intelligence and working memory we use the Wechsler Intelligence Scale WISC-IV, to evaluate attention we used the CPT and Selective Attention Test. RESULTS: There weren't significant differences between both subtypes of ADHD regarding working memory, on the other hand the female group had better abilities in cognitive flexibility task than males and subjects diagnosed with combined ADHD had more difficulties in inhibitory control. CONCLUSIONS: We can confirm that the definition of ADHD in DSM-5 isn't enough as them are imprecise. Therefore, the disease definition it's performed by a specific evaluation of attention and inhibitory control mechanisms and its necessary a neuropshychological evaluation of these brain functions.

TITLE: Comparacion entre el diagnostico del trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad con el DSM-5 y la valoracion neuropsicologica de las funciones ejecutivas.Introduccion. El trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad (TDAH) tiene una prevalencia del 3-7% de la poblacion en edad escolar y cursa con problemas academicos y disfunciones ejecutivas. Objetivo. Estudiar la relacion entre el diagnostico del TDAH por medio de los criterios del Manual diagnostico y estadistico de los trastornos mentales, quinta edicion (DSM-5), y la evaluacion neuropsicologica de las funciones ejecutivas. Sujetos y metodos. Se evaluo a 50 sujetos, 12 mujeres y 38 varones, entre 8 y 10 años. Para evaluar el control inhibitorio se utilizo el Continuous Performance Test (CPT) y el test de Stroop; para la inteligencia y la memoria de trabajo, la escala de inteligencia de Wechsler para niños-IV; y para la atencion, el CPT y el Selective Attention Test. Resultados. No habia diferencias significativas entre ambos subtipos de TDAH en cuanto a la memoria de trabajo. Las niñas presentaban mejores habilidades en la tarea de flexibilidad cognitiva que los niños, y los sujetos diagnosticados de TDAH combinado presentaban mayores dificultades en el control inhibitorio. Conclusiones. Confirmamos que las definiciones del TDAH en el DSM-5 son imprecisas. Son una escasa enumeracion de sintomas clinicos del trastorno, sin definir con claridad criterios propios de el. Por lo tanto, la definicion del trastorno se realiza por la evaluacion especifica de la atencion y de los mecanismos de control inhibitorio y, por ello, es necesaria una evaluacion neuropsicologica de las funciones cerebrales superiores.

[Current state of the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder approach in neuropediatrics]. / Estado actual del enfoque del trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad en neuropediatria.

AIM: To know the current state of the approach of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in neuropediatricians. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A telematic survey was carried out to collect preliminary information on the interest, difficulties in the management and treatment of ADHD to the 437 fellowship of the Neuropediactric Spanish Society (SENEP). RESULTS: Only 32.49% of the sent questionnaires were answered, with important geographic variability. 97.89% stated that 50% of their consultations were children with learning disabilities and ADHD. Regarding who started treatment for ADHD in their area, the majority answered that the neuropediatrician (57.97%), followed by the child psychiatrist (34.78%) and the primary care pediatrician (5.31%). The lack of a psycho-pedagogical study by the school (49.79%), followed by the lack of time in the consultation (29.11%), was cited as the greatest difficulty in the initial assessment of children with suspected ADHD. Concerning the difficulties in the follow-up, the biggest complaint was the lack of coordination between professionals, the school and parents. And, lastly, regarding the type of treatment use, most patients were on prolonged-release methylphenidate, a stable percentage using immediate release methylphenidate as a single or combined treatment, and in a lower range was the use of clonidine and atomoxetine, and an incipient use of lisdexamphetamine were observed. 80% of the patient showed adherence to pharmacological treatment after one year. CONCLUSIONS: It is necessary to advance in the training and continuous education of our neuropediatric specialists in ADHD and to homogenize the clinical practice and coordination with education system in the Spanish territory.

TITLE: Estado actual del enfoque del trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad en neuropediatria.Objetivo. Conocer el estado actual del enfoque del trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad (TDAH) entre los neuropediatras. Sujetos y metodos. Se realizo una encuesta telematica que recogia informacion preliminar sobre el interes, las dificultades en el manejo y el tratamiento del TDAH a los 437 socios de la Sociedad Española de Neurologia Pediatrica. Resultados. Respondio un 32,49% de los cuestionarios enviados, con una importante variabilidad geografica. El 97,89% afirmo que el 50% de sus consultas eran niños con trastornos de aprendizaje y TDAH. Respecto a quien iniciaba el tratamiento para el TDAH en su area, la mayoria contesto que el neuropediatra (57,97%), seguido del psiquiatra infantil (34,78%) y del pediatra de atencion primaria (5,31%). Respecto a las mayores dificultades para la valoracion inicial de los niños con sospecha de TDAH, se citaron la falta de un estudio psicopedagogico por parte de la escuela (49,79%), seguido de la falta de tiempo en la consulta (29,11%). Sobre las dificultades en el seguimiento, la mayor queja se produjo por la falta de coordinacion entre los profesionales, la escuela y los padres. Respecto a la medicacion, la mayoria de los pacientes se encontraba en tratamiento con algun tipo de metilfenidato de liberacion prolongada, un porcentaje estable utilizaba metilfenidato de liberacion inmediata como tratamiento unico o combinado, y se observo en un rango inferior el uso de clonidina y atomoxetina, y un incipiente uso de lisdexanfetamina. La adhesion al tratamiento farmacologico al año fue alrededor del 80%. Conclusiones. Es necesario avanzar en la capacitacion y educacion continua de nuestros especialistas neuropediatricos en el manejo del TDAH, y en homogeneizar la practica clinica y la coordinacion con educacion en el territorio español.

[Good practice guidelines for the treatment of autistic spectrum disorders]. / Guia de buena practica para el tratamiento de los trastornos del espectro autista.

INTRODUCTION: Due to the inexistence of an aetiology-based intervention for autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) families and professionals are exposed to diverse and sometimes conflictive recommendations when they have to decide the most adequate alternative for treatment. AIM: To elaborate treatment guidelines agreed by consensus at the ASD Study Group of the (National) Institute of Health Carlos III. DEVELOPMENT: Information about treatment of ASD was searched and gathered through available evidence based medical (EBM) databases. The data generated was complemented with practice parameters published elsewhere, reports from prestigious international institutions, focus oriented searches in PubMed and, finally, the opinion and experience of a multidisciplinary Study Group with extensive experience in treating ASD in Spain. Most popular treatment methods were reviewed as well as the common elements to be considered in successful support programs. CONCLUSION: No simple treatment algorithm can be produced at this time, and the level of available evidence based recommendations are in the weaker degrees of EBM classifications. Nevertheless, there is widespread agreement to stress that education, with special incidence in the development of communication and social competence, with the addition of community support are the main means of treatment. They can be complemented, depending on individual needs, with medication, behavioural approaches and cognitive-behavioural therapy for associated psychological problems in persons with higher cognitive level. Support to families and community empowerment are essential elements for the quality of life of persons with ASD.

[Best practice guidelines for the early detection of Autistic Spectrum Disorders (I)]. / Guía de buena práctica para la detección temprana de los trastornos del espectro autista (I).

INTRODUCTION: The interest in early detection of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) lies in the accumulated evidence of the fact that an early customized intervention for children with an ASD and their families leads to an improvement of the child's prognosis in most cases. OBJECTIVE: To establish criteria and procedures for early identification of children at risk of ASD and to facilitate full diagnostic assessment and prompt referral leading to adequate support. Early detection of ASD is extremely important, since early specific individualized treatment for the child and his or her family leads to long-term improvement in many children' prognosis. DEVELOPMENT: Firstly, a critical appraisal of the situation of early detection of ASD in Spain is made after reviewing the scarce bibliography available on current screening and diagnostic practices in the country. Data generated by questionnaires received from 646 Spanish families is also taken into account. Secondly, the Study Group of the Instituto de Salud Carlos III recommends the screening and early diagnosis process to be followed, describing the necessary steps, the public services involved and the available screening and diagnostic tools. CONCLUSIONS: The Study Group draws the main conclusions regarding the situation of ASD early detection in Spain, and makes a consensus proposal for the detection procedures, including routine developmental surveillance and identification of children at risk for ASD by using sensitive and specific assessment tools.

[Best practice guidelines for the diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders]. / Guía de buena práctica para el diagnóstico de los trastornos del espectro autista.

INTRODUCTION: The autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnostic process requires expertise both in the knowledge of autism as in teamwork strategies with different professionals, often working in different clinic services, and with parents. AIM: To recommend a consensus diagnostic procedure for ASD, that has been designed by the Study Group of the Instituto de Salud Carlos III. DEVELOPMENT: The reports emphasize the need to obtain a complete clinical history, covering personal, family and psychosocial antecedents; detailing the basic areas affected in ASD--social interaction, communication and restricted patterns of behaviour, activities and interests. Diagnostic tests to be used as a routine in all cases are described and analysed--including both psychoeducational and biomedical tests. Also, tests indicated in cases with suspected identifiable physical disorders are covered, as well as those medical tests to be used for research purposes only. CONCLUSION: The diagnostic procedure requires the implementation of a coordinated interdisciplinary assessment strategy, that needs to ensure the participation of professionals from very different fields in active collaboration with the family. Their role culminates in the preparation and delivery of a personalized report. Every diagnostic procedure needs to be accompanied by an action plan that includes immediate support to the person with ASD, as well as information to the family on resources and community initiatives in their living area.

[Best practice guidelines for research in autistic spectrum disorders]. / Guía de buena práctica para la investigación de los trastornos del espectro autista.

INTRODUCTION: Achieving a better knowledge of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders known as autistic spectrum disorders (ASD), poses a major scientific challenge. These disorders are some of the earliest and most severe psychopathological disorders in infancy; they include an heterogeneous group of conditions; its prevalence rate seems to be continually increasing and they generate a significant social impact. AIMS AND DEVELOPMENT: Nowadays, there is a current international agreement on the general requirements to be fulfilled by research projects and the priority areas to be considered when developing ASD high quality research. In Spain, although there are some established research groups with broad experience and expertise in these disorders, public funding opportunities and research development are still scarce. For this reason, the Study Group of the Instituto de Salud Carlos III has generated by consensus some Good Practice Guidelines for Research in ASD. CONCLUSIONS: After comparing priorities and recommendations from international reference documents with the results obtained after having carried out an exhaustive bibliographic revision of articles published in autism in the last 30 years by Spanish authors, methodological and ethical recommendations are established. Finally, structural deficiencies to be corrected and emerging research initiatives to be supported are identified.

[Dystonia responsive to L-dopa]. / Distonía curable con tratamiento con L-dopa.

A comprehensive literature review is made. Clinical characteristics, differential diagnosis, treatment with L-dopa and underlying pathological conditions are commented.

[Psychogenic paroxysmal disorders in children]. / Trastornos paroxísticos psicógenos en los niños.

INTRODUCTION: Paroxystic psychic disorders which imitate organic disorders of the nervous system may have peripheral effects, present as changes in level of consciousness or appear as paroxystic behaviour changes. DEVELOPMENT AND CONCLUSIONS: The types of crises of psychological origin are: tantrums, panic attacks, crises of psychopathic rage, onanism or masturbation, epileptic pseudocrises or pseudoconvulsions and Munchausen's syndrome. In general psychic crises are not frequent in infancy: tantrums are commoner in small children and the other conditions usually occur after puberty or during adolescence. The anamnesis is the most important factor in the correct diagnosis of psychogenic paroxystic disorders. Complementary studies are done in doubtful cases, to rule out different pathological processes which might be causing the paroxystic disorder. Amongst these investigations, we emphasize the importance of the video-EEG for differential diagnosis of paroxystic disorders in children.

[Children at risk for learning disorders]. / Niños con riesgo de padecer dificultades en el aprendizaje.

INTRODUCTION: To find what is meant by normal learning, it is essential to understand learning difficulties not only from the anatomical but also from the functional point of view. DEVELOPMENT: We review the literature concerning risk factors for learning difficulties in order to treat them early on and attain satisfactory long-term development. CONCLUSIONS: Learning difficulties are the largest groups of disorders in everyday neuropaediatric practice. It should be remembered that in most children with learning difficulties there are undiagnosed preexisting neurological disorders, which come to light on reaching an age at which improved academic achievement is obligatory.

[Cognitive flexibility, an additional symptom of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Is it a therapeutically predictive element?]. / Flexibilidad cognitiva, sintoma adicional del trastorno por deficit de atencion con hiperactividad. ¿Elemento predictor terapeutico?

INTRODUCTION: Cognitive flexibility is a capability acquired during infancy that can be evaluated from the age of 8 onwards. This executive function can affect patients with dorsolateral frontal lesions. Involvement of this function in some children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) would point to an additional disorder. AIMS: The objective of this study was to report on the involvement of cognitive flexibility in patients with ADHD from the age of 8 years onwards, to establish a correlation with the progressive phenomenon in its development, and to relate the findings from the study of cognitive flexibility with those of the attentional function. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A group of 50 children diagnosed as suffering from ADHD (8 21 years old) and 50 normal children were evaluated. The same subjects were submitted to a study of their attentional functions, their inhibitory control mechanisms as well as their cognitive flexibility. RESULTS: At least 38% of the patients studied showed involvement of cognitive flexibility. No statistically significant relation was observed when data were linked to the age variable, which could point to the absence of the maturation factor, unlike the results observed in the case of sustained attention. Patients with poor cognitive flexibility also present disorders involving attentional discrimination, the control of impulses and interference control. CONCLUSIONS: The group with cognitive rigidity as a symptom added to the attentional disorder could correspond to a complex subtype that does not respond so successfully to stimulants. Consequently, cognitive flexibility studies could reflect an indicator for selecting the type of pharmacological treatment to be employed.

[The pharmacological approach to the autistic spectrum]. / Abordaje farmacológico en el espectro autista.

OBJECTIVE: To describe our experience of the drug treatment of children within the autistic spectrum. DEVELOPMENT: We analyze some neuroleptic drugs, the serotonin uptake inhibitors and antiepileptic drugs, emphasizing the most suitable drugs for each symptom we wish to treat and how to do so. CONCLUSIONS: The treatment of children within the autistic spectrum should be specific, meticulous and well controlled by the neuropaediatrician. It should be changed according to the symptoms and never expected to be the same during the patient s entire life. More studies are needed in this field.

[Interdisciplinary diagnosis in early attention]. / Diagnóstico interdisciplinar en atención temprana.

INTRODUCTION: The diagnosis is an essential element for the therapeutic approach in Early Attention. This is considered from a multifactorial point of view in all aspects of child development. It starts with a programme to follow-up the neurological progress of children at risk and requires the collaboration of professionals trained in medicine, psychology, teaching and the social sciences. OBJECTIVE: For the interdisciplinary group to make a satisfactory diagnosis, and also find a suitable way of informing the family of this, in spite of their emotional turmoil. METHODS: A holistic approach and naturalist methods suitable to the context. CONCLUSIONS: We considered children with developmental disorders from the biological, psychological, social and educational points of view when making a functional diagnosis on which to base a plan for treatment in the 'Early Attention Service'.

[Functional neuronal plasticity]. / Plasticidad neuronal funcional.

INTRODUCTION: Thanks to the contributions made by neuroscientific research and the clinical evidence regarding the functional recovery of the central nervous system in the different motor, cognitive, linguistic and sensory spheres, we now know more about how the brain is built and its modifications. This recovery is possible due to the plasticity of the brain, its capacity to reorganise itself and to modify functions in order to adapt to both external and internal changes. This capacity is inherent to brain cells and allows cortical circuits to be repaired, integrates other cortical areas to carry out modified functions and responds to different disorders. It depends on genetic, neuronal and neurochemical factors and its limits can be manipulated through clinical and pharmacological intervention. DEVELOPMENT: The brain's capacity to adapt itself to changes is crucial in the development of the nervous system and has important repercussions on learning. The neuroanatomical, neurochemical and functional changes that take place during the reorganisation made possible by plasticity will facilitate the recovery acquisition of the functions involved (adaptive plasticity) and may hinder the development of others (maladaptive plasticity). This variability of the possible responses is related to the chronology of the lesion, the site that is affected, the state of the substrata that can take on the function and the type of function that is altered. The mechanisms responsible for facilitating this plasticity are different at any given time (fast and late plasticity), depending on the function that is altered, with expansion of the somatotopic representations in the motor cortex adjacent to the damage, interhemispherical transfer of language or crossed plasticity in the auditory or visual function. The neuropsychological pathology can appear linked to the lesion or secondary to a maladaptive plasticity. CONCLUSIONS: Advancing in our knowledge of the intrinsic mechanisms of brain plasticity and synaptic regulation will lead us to understand the recovery of damaged or lost functions in the brains of children with special needs, and thus allow us to implement favourable clinical and pharmacological interventions.