Liquid Nebulization-Ion Mobility Spectrometry Based Quantification of Nanoparticle-Protein Conjugate Formation.

Despite the importance of examining the formation of nanoparticle-protein conjugates, there is a dearth of routine techniques for nanoparticle-protein conjugate characterization. The most prominent change to a nanoparticle population upon conjugate formation is a shift in the nanoparticle size distribution function. However, commonly employed dynamic light scattering based approaches for size distribution characterization are ineffective for nonmonodisperse samples, and further they are relatively insensitive to size shifts of only several nanometers, which are common during conjugate formation. Conversely, gas phase ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) techniques can be used to reliably examine polydisperse samples, and are sensitive to ∼1 nm size distribution function shifts; the challenge with IMS is to convert nanoparticle-protein conjugates to aerosol particles without bringing about nonspecific aggregation or conjugate formation. Except in limited circumstances, electrospray based aerosolization has proven difficult to apply for this purpose. Here we show that via liquid nebulization (LN) with online, high-flow-rate dilution (with dilution factors up to 10 000) it is possible to aerosolize nanoparticle-protein conjugates, enabling IMS measurements of their conjugate size distribution functions. We specifically employ the LN-IMS system to examine bovine serum albumin binding to gold nanoparticles. Inferred maximum protein surface coverages (∼0.025 nm(-2)) from measurements are shown to be in excellent agreement with reported values for gold from quartz crystal microbalance measurements. It is also shown that LN-IMS measurements can be used to detect size distribution function shifts on the order of 1 nm, even in circumstances where the size distribution function itself has a standard deviation of ∼5 nm. In total, the reported measurements suggest that LN-IMS is a potentially simple and robust technique for nanoparticle-protein conjugate characterization.

Nanomaterial size distribution analysis via liquid nebulization coupled with ion mobility spectrometry (LN-IMS).

We apply liquid nebulization (LN) in series with ion mobility spectrometry (IMS, using a differential mobility analyzer coupled to a condensation particle counter) to measure the size distribution functions (the number concentration per unit log diameter) of gold nanospheres in the 5-30 nm range, 70 nm × 11.7 nm gold nanorods, and albumin proteins originally in aqueous suspensions. In prior studies, IMS measurements have only been carried out for colloidal nanoparticles in this size range using electrosprays for aerosolization, as traditional nebulizers produce supermicrometer droplets which leave residue particles from non-volatile species. Residue particles mask the size distribution of the particles of interest. Uniquely, the LN employed in this study uses both online dilution (with dilution factors of up to 10(4)) with ultra-high purity water and a ball-impactor to remove droplets larger than 500 nm in diameter. This combination enables hydrosol-to-aerosol conversion preserving the size and morphology of particles, and also enables higher non-volatile residue tolerance than electrospray based aerosolization. Through LN-IMS measurements we show that the size distribution functions of narrowly distributed but similarly sized particles can be distinguished from one another, which is not possible with Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis in the sub-30 nm size range. Through comparison to electron microscopy measurements, we find that the size distribution functions inferred via LN-IMS measurements correspond to the particle sizes coated by surfactants, i.e. as they persist in colloidal suspensions. Finally, we show that the gas phase particle concentrations inferred from IMS size distribution functions are functions of only of the liquid phase particle concentration, and are independent of particle size, shape, and chemical composition. Therefore LN-IMS enables characterization of the size, yield, and polydispersity of sub-30 nm particles.

Analysis of heterogeneous water vapor uptake by metal iodide cluster ions via differential mobility analysis-mass spectrometry.

The sorption of vapor molecules onto pre-existing nanometer sized clusters is of importance in understanding particle formation and growth in gas phase environments and devising gas phase separation schemes. Here, we apply a differential mobility analyzer-mass spectrometer based approach to observe directly the sorption of vapor molecules onto iodide cluster ions of the form (MI)xM(+) (x = 1-13, M = Na, K, Rb, or Cs) in air at 300 K and with water saturation ratios in the 0.01-0.64 range. The extent of vapor sorption is quantified in measurements by the shift in collision cross section (CCS) for each ion. We find that CCS measurements are sensitive enough to detect the transient binding of several vapor molecules to clusters, which shift CCSs by only several percent. At the same time, for the highest saturation ratios examined, we observed CCS shifts of up to 45%. For x < 4, cesium, rubidium, and potassium iodide cluster ions are found to uptake water to a similar extent, while sodium iodide clusters uptake less water. For x ≥ 4, sodium iodide cluster ions uptake proportionally more water vapor than rubidium and potassium iodide cluster ions, while cesium iodide ions exhibit less uptake. Measured CCS shifts are compared to predictions based upon a Kelvin-Thomson-Raoult (KTR) model as well as a Langmuir adsorption model. We find that the Langmuir adsorption model can be fit well to measurements. Meanwhile, KTR predictions deviate from measurements, which suggests that the earliest stages of vapor uptake by nanometer scale species are not well described by the KTR model.

Analysis of heterogeneous uptake by nanoparticles via differential mobility analysis-drift tube ion mobility spectrometry.

Improved methods are needed to study sorption of vapor molecules by particles in the gas phase (heterogeneous uptake), which is an important process in both natural and engineered environments. Here, a new measurement system, composed of a differential mobility analyzer (DMA) and drift tube ion mobility spectrometer (DTIMS) in series, is used to examine the heterogeneous uptake of water vapor by 2.85-7.6 nm particles composed of lithium and sodium iodide. The extent of heterogeneous uptake is determined by controlling the relative humidity of the drift region in the DTIMS in the 0-30% range (in air at atmospheric pressure and room temperature), and is quantified via the dimensionless growth factor (GF), i.e. the ratio of the mobility diameter of particles at a prescribed relative humidity relative to their mobility diameter under dry conditions. The precision in GF estimation of the DMA-DTIMS system is shown to be below 0.2%. An analytical equation to calculate the growth factor, based upon predictions of the equilibrium constants for the successive uptake of vapor molecules by particles, is also presented. While the equation is sufficiently general to enable comparison between measured GFs and predictions from any theoretical expression for equilibrium constants, we specifically compare measurements to GF predictions based on the classical Kelvin-Thomson-Raoult (KTR) model for the vapor pressure of a small particle, with consideration of the influence of the ion-dipole potential on water vapor-nanoparticle collisions. It is shown that KTR calculations drastically underpredict the extent of heterogeneous uptake for the examined nanoparticles.

Heterogeneous nucleation measurements in a sheathed planar diffusive condensation particle counter.

HYPOTHESIS: While the lack of efficient tools yielding controllable uniform saturation ratios (S) has delayed basic experimental heterogeneous nucleation studies, common diffusive condensation particle counters (DCPCs) could fill this gap if their S-variation were minimized by increasing the proportion of sheath gas (σ) surrounding a central core of purified clusters. ANALYSIS: We measure the activation probability P of Tetraheptylammonium Bromide cluster cations (THA-Br)n-1THA+ in Kanomax's fast CPC while controlling S through the saturator and condenser temperatures (Ts, Tc), varying σ, and changing the size (n) of purified salt clusters via high resolution mobility selection. FINDINGS: Experimental curves P(Ts,n) obtained in 1-butanol/air at fixed Tc (13 °C) and variable n and Ts (3 ≤ n ≤ 16; 30 ≤ Ts ≤ 40 °C) rise sharply versus both n and Ts. Their steepness increases five-fold with increasing σ to about σ = 75%, with little effect thereafter. Measurements changing S would yield size distributions of unknown aerosols at fairly high resolution. Comparing P(Ts,n) data with predictions from capillary theory suggests that basic heterogeneous nucleation measurements can be carried out, but instrument improvements are still needed.

Modeling of an Inverted Drift Tube for Improved Mobility Analysis of Aerosol Particles.

A new mobility particle analyzer, which has been termed Inverted Drift Tube, has been modeled analytically as well as numerically and proven to be a very capable instrument. The basis for the new design have been the shortcomings of the previous ion mobility spectrometers, in particular (a) diffusional broadening which leads to degradation of instrument resolution and (b) inadequate low and fixed resolution (not mobility dependent) for large sizes. To overcome the diffusional broadening and have a mobility based resolution, the IDT uses two varying controllable opposite forces, a flow of gas with velocity v gas , and a linearly increasing electric field that opposes the movement. A new parameter, the separation ratio Λ = v drift /v gas , is employed to determine the best possible separation for a given set of nanoparticles. Due to the system's need to operate at room pressure, two methods of capturing the ions at the end of the drift tube have been developed, Intermittent Push Flow for a large range of mobilities, and Nearly-Stopping Potential Separation, with very high separation but limited only to a narrow mobility range. A chromatography existing concept of resolving power is used to differentiate between peak resolution in the IDT and acceptable separation between similar mobility sizes.

Water-based condensation particle counters for environmental monitoring of ultrafine particles.

TSI Inc. (Shoreview, MN) has introduced three new water-based condensation particle counters (WCPCS) that were designed to detect airborne particles larger than 2.5 nm (model 3786), 5 nm (model 3785), and either 10 or 20 nm (model 3782). These WCPCs are well suited for real-time, environmental monitoring of number concentration of airborne ultrafine particles. Their unique design incorporates the use of water as the working fluid instead of alcohol. Water is odor free, readily available, and eliminates the problem of water condensation and absorption into alcohol working fluids during operation in humid environments. In this study, the performance of three TSI WCPCs was characterized for several aerosol compositions, including sucrose, salt (NaCl), dioctyl sebacate (DOS), dioctyl phthalate (DOP), emery oil (poly-alpha-olefin), silver, impurity residue particles, and ambient aerosol particles. All particles were size selected using a nano differential mobility analyzer (nano-DMA; model 3085, TSI Inc.) to create monodisperse challenge aerosols. The challenge aerosol was mixed uniformly with clean makeup flow and split into a WCPC and a reference instrument to determine the counting efficiency of the WCPC. For the model 3785 WCPC, the D50 (i.e., the particle diameter with 50% counting efficiency) was determined to be 3.1 nm for salt particles, 4.7 nm for sucrose and ambient particles, 5.6 nm for silver particles, and >50 nm for ultrapure oil particles. The sensitivity to oil droplets increased dramatically (D50 < 10 nm) when the oil was slightly contaminated. The D50 of model 3786 ultrafine water-based CPC (UWCPC) was 2.4 nm for impurity residue particles. The D50 of the model 3782 WCPC was 10.8 (with a nominal setting of 10 nm) or 19.8 nm (with a nominal setting of 20 nm) for sucrose particles. All three WCPCs have response times of less than 2 or 3 sec and are therefore able to detect fast-changing events.

Ion-Mobility-Based Quantification of Surface-Coating-Dependent Binding of Serum Albumin to Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles.

Protein binding and protein-induced nanoparticle aggregation are known to occur for a variety of nanomaterials, with the extent of binding and aggregation highly dependent on nanoparticle surface properties. However, often lacking are techniques that enable quantification of the extent of protein binding and aggregation, particularly for nanoparticles with polydisperse size distributions. In this study, we adapt ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) to examine the binding of bovine serum albumin to commercially available anionic-surfactant-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs), which are initially ∼21 nm in mean mobility diameter and have a polydisperse size distribution function (geometric standard deviation near 1.4). IMS, carried out with a hydrosol-to-aerosol converting nebulizer, a differential mobility analyzer, and a condensation particle counter, enables measurements of SPION size distribution functions for varying BSA/SPION number concentration ratios. IMS measurements suggest that initially (at BSA concentrations below 50 nM) BSA binds reversibly to SPION surfaces with a binding site density in the 0.05-0.08 nm(-2) range. However, at higher BSA concentrations, BSA induces SPION-SPION aggregation, evidenced by larger shifts in SPION size distribution functions (mean diameters beyond 40 nm for BSA concentrations near 100 nM) and geometric standard deviations (near 1.3) consistent with self-preserving aggregation theories. The onset of BSA aggregation is correlated with a modest but statistically significant decrease in the specific absorption rate (SAR) of SPIONs placed within an alternating magnetic field. The coating of SPIONs with mesoporous silica (MS-SPIONs) as well as PEGylation (MS-SPIONs-PEG) is found to completely mitigate BSA binding and BSA-induced aggregation; IMS-inferred size distribution functions are insensitive to BSA concentration for MS-SPIONs and MS-SPIONs-PEG. The SARs of MS-SPIONs are additionally insensitive to BSA concentration, confirming the SAR decrease is linked to BSA-induced aggregation.

The collision cross sections of iodide salt cluster ions in air via differential mobility analysis-mass spectrometry.

To date, most collision cross section (CCS) predictions have invoked gas molecule impingement-reemission rules in which specular and elastic scattering of spherical gas molecules from rigid polyatomic surfaces are assumed. Although such predictions have been shown to agree well with CCSs measured in helium bath gas, a number of studies reveal that these predictions do not agree with CCSs for ions in diatomic gases, namely, air and molecular nitrogen. To further examine the validity of specular-elastic versus diffuse-inelastic scattering models, we measured the CCSs of positively charged metal iodide cluster ions of the form [MI]n[M(+)]z, where M = Na, K, Rb, or Cs, n = 1 - 25, and z = 1 - 2. Measurements were made in air via differential mobility analysis mass spectrometry (DMA-MS). The CCSs measured are compared with specular-elastic as well as diffuse-inelastic scattering model predictions with candidate ion structures determined from density functional theory. It is found that predictions from diffuse-inelastic collision models agree well (within 5%) with measurements from sodium iodide cluster ions, while specular-elastic collision model predictions are in better agreement with cesium iodide cluster ion measurements. The agreement with diffuse-inelastic and specular-elastic predictions decreases and increases, respectively, with increasing cation mass. However, even when diffuse-inelastic cluster ion predictions disagree with measurements, the disagreement is of a near-constant factor for all ions, indicating that a simple linear rescaling collapses predictions to measurements. Conversely, rescaling cannot be used to collapse specular-elastic predictions to measurements; hence, although the precise impingement reemission rules remain ambiguous, they are not specular-elastic.