A phase 3 randomized trial of mavorixafor, a CXCR4 antagonist, for WHIM syndrome.

ABSTRACT: We investigated efficacy and safety of mavorixafor, an oral CXCR4 antagonist, in participants with warts, hypogammaglobulinemia, infections, and myelokathexis (WHIM) syndrome, a rare immunodeficiency caused by CXCR4 gain-of-function variants. This randomized (1:1), double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial enrolled participants aged ≥12 years with WHIM syndrome and absolute neutrophil count (ANC) ≤0.4 × 103/µL. Participants received once-daily mavorixafor or placebo for 52 weeks. The primary end point was time (hours) above ANC threshold ≥0.5 × 103/µL (TATANC; over 24 hours). Secondary end points included TAT absolute lymphocyte count ≥1.0 × 103/µL (TATALC; over 24 hours); absolute changes in white blood cell (WBC), ANC, and absolute lymphocyte count (ALC) from baseline; annualized infection rate; infection duration; and total infection score (combined infection number/severity). In 31 participants (mavorixafor, n = 14; placebo, n = 17), mavorixafor least squares (LS) mean TATANC was 15.0 hours and 2.8 hours for placebo (P < .001). Mavorixafor LS mean TATALC was 15.8 hours and 4.6 hours for placebo (P < .001). Annualized infection rates were 60% lower with mavorixafor vs placebo (LS mean 1.7 vs 4.2; nominal P = .007), and total infection scores were 40% lower (7.4 [95% confidence interval [CI], 1.6-13.2] vs 12.3 [95% CI, 7.2-17.3]). Treatment with mavorixafor reduced infection frequency, severity, duration, and antibiotic use. No discontinuations occurred due to treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs); no related serious TEAEs were observed. Overall, mavorixafor treatment demonstrated significant increases in LS mean TATANC and TATALC, reduced infection frequency, severity/duration, and was well tolerated. The trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT03995108.

JAK inhibitor treatment for inborn errors of JAK/STAT signaling: An ESID/EBMT-IEWP retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: Inborn errors of immunity (IEI) with dysregulated JAK/STAT signaling present with variable manifestations of immune dysregulation and infections. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is potentially curative, but initially reported outcomes were poor. JAK inhibitors (JAKi) offer a targeted treatment option that may be an alternative or bridge to HSCT. However, data on their current use, treatment efficacy and adverse events are limited. OBJECTIVE: We evaluated the current off-label JAKi treatment experience for JAK/STAT inborn errors of immunity (IEI) among European Society for Immunodeficiencies (ESID)/European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (EBMT) Inborn Errors Working Party (IEWP) centers. METHODS: We conducted a multicenter retrospective study on patients with a genetic disorder of hyperactive JAK/STAT signaling who received JAKi treatment for at least 3 months. RESULTS: Sixty-nine patients (72% children) were evaluated (45 STAT1 gain of function [GOF], 21 STAT3-GOF, 1 STAT5B-GOF, 1 suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 [aka SOCS1] loss of function, 1 JAK1-GOF). Ruxolitinib was the predominantly prescribed JAKi (80%). Overall, treatment resulted in improvement (partial or complete remission) of clinical symptoms in 87% of STAT1-GOF and in 90% of STAT3-GOF patients. We documented highly heterogeneous dosing and monitoring regimens. The response rate and time to response varied across different diseases and manifestations. Adverse events including infection and weight gain were frequent (38% of patients) but were mild (grade I-II) and transient in most patients. At last follow-up, 52 (74%) of 69 patients were still receiving JAKi treatment, and 11 patients eventually underwent HSCT after receipt of previous JAKi bridging therapy, with 91% overall survival. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that JAKi may be highly effective to treat symptomatic JAK/STAT IEI patients. Prospective studies to define optimal JAKi dosing for the variable clinical presentations and age ranges should be pursued.

"Deficiency in ELF4, X-Linked": a Monogenic Disease Entity Resembling Behçet's Syndrome and Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

Defining monogenic drivers of autoinflammatory syndromes elucidates mechanisms of disease in patients with these inborn errors of immunity and can facilitate targeted therapeutic interventions. Here, we describe a cohort of patients with a Behçet's- and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)-like disorder termed "deficiency in ELF4, X-linked" (DEX) affecting males with loss-of-function variants in the ELF4 transcription factor gene located on the X chromosome. An international cohort of fourteen DEX patients was assessed to identify unifying clinical manifestations and diagnostic criteria as well as collate findings informing therapeutic responses. DEX patients exhibit a heterogeneous clinical phenotype including weight loss, oral and gastrointestinal aphthous ulcers, fevers, skin inflammation, gastrointestinal symptoms, arthritis, arthralgia, and myalgia, with findings of increased inflammatory markers, anemia, neutrophilic leukocytosis, thrombocytosis, intermittently low natural killer and class-switched memory B cells, and increased inflammatory cytokines in the serum. Patients have been predominantly treated with anti-inflammatory agents, with the majority of DEX patients treated with biologics targeting TNFα.

Impact of JAK Inhibitors in Pediatric Patients with STAT1 Gain of Function (GOF) Mutations-10 Children and Review of the Literature.

INTRODUCTION: Since the first description of gain of function (GOF) mutations in signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 1, more than 300 patients have been described with a broad clinical phenotype including infections and severe immune dysregulation. Whilst Jak inhibitors (JAKinibs) have demonstrated benefits in several reported cases, their indications, dosing, and monitoring remain to be established. METHODS: A retrospective, multicenter study recruiting pediatric patients with STAT1 GOF under JAKinib treatment was performed and, when applicable, compared with the available reports from the literature. RESULTS: Ten children (median age 8.5 years (3-18), receiving JAKinibs (ruxolitinib (n = 9) and baricitinib (n = 1)) with a median follow-up of 18 months (2-42) from 6 inborn errors of immunity (IEI) reference centers were included. Clinical profile and JAKinib indications in our series were similar to the previously published 14 pediatric patients. 9/10 (our cohort) and 14/14 patients (previous reports) showed partial or complete responses. The median immune deficiency and dysregulation activity scores were 15.99 (5.2-40) pre and 7.55 (3-14.1) under therapy (p = 0.0078). Infection, considered a likely adverse event of JAKinib therapy, was observed in 1/10 patients; JAKinibs were stopped in 3/10 children, due to hepatotoxicity, pre-HSCT, and absence of response. CONCLUSIONS: Our study supports the potentially beneficial use of JAKinibs in patients with STAT1 GOF, in line with previously published data. However, consensus regarding their indications and timing, dosing, treatment duration, and monitoring, as well as defining biomarkers to monitor clinical and immunological responses, remains to be determined, in form of international prospective multicenter studies using established IEI registries.

Ex vivo effect of JAK inhibition on JAK-STAT1 pathway hyperactivation in patients with dominant-negative STAT3 mutations.

PURPOSE: STAT1 gain-of-function (GOF) and dominant-negative (DN) STAT3 syndromes share clinical manifestations including infectious and inflammatory manifestations. Targeted treatment with Janus-kinase (JAK) inhibitors shows promising results in treating STAT1 GOF-associated symptoms while management of DN STAT3 patients has been largely supportive. We here assessed the impact of ruxolitinib on the JAK-STAT1/3 pathway in DN STAT3 patients' cells. METHODS: Using flow cytometry, immunoblot, qPCR, and ELISA techniques, we examined the levels of basal STAT1 and phosphorylated STAT1 (pSTAT1) of cells obtained from DN STAT3, STAT1 GOF patients, and healthy donors following stimulation with type I/II interferons (IFNs) or interleukin (IL)-6. We also describe the impact of ruxolitinib on cytokine-induced STAT1 signaling in these patients. RESULTS: DN STAT3 and STAT1 GOF resulted in a similar phenotype characterized by increased STAT1 and pSTAT1 levels in response to IFNα (CD3+ cells) and IFNγ (CD14+ monocytes). STAT1-downstream gene expression and C-X-C motif chemokine 10 secretion were higher in most DN STAT3 patients upon stimulation compared to healthy controls. Ex vivo treatment with the JAK1/2-inhibitor ruxolitinib reduced cytokine responsiveness and normalized STAT1 phosphorylation in DN STAT3 and STAT1 GOF patient' cells. In addition, ex vivo treatment was effective in modulating STAT1 downstream signaling in DN STAT3 patients. CONCLUSION: In the absence of effective targeted treatment options for AD-HIES at present, modulation of the JAK/STAT1 pathway with JAK inhibitors may be further explored particularly in those AD-HIES patients with autoimmune and/or autoinflammatory manifestations.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Vaccination in Children with a History of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children: An International Survey.

The optimal severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 vaccine strategy for patients with a history of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) is unclear. We performed an international survey (32 countries) and found substantial variations in vaccine policies. Respondents did not report relapses of MIS-C or other severe inflammatory side effects after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 vaccination in 273 patients with a history of MIS-C.

Biallelic TRAF3IP2 variants causing chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis in a child harboring a STAT1 variant.

BACKGROUND: Inherited chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (CMC) is often caused by inborn errors of immunity, impairing the response to, or the production of IL-17A and IL-17F. About half of the cases carry STAT1 gain-of-function (GOF) mutations. Only few patients have been reported with mutations of TRAF3IP2, a gene encoding the adaptor ACT1 essential for IL-17 receptor(R) signaling. We investigated a 10-year-old girl with CMC, carrying a heterozygous variant of STAT1 and compound heterozygous variants of TRAF3IP2. METHODS: By flow cytometry, STAT1 levels and phosphorylation (CD14+) as well as IL-17A, IL-22, IFN-γ, and IL-4 production (memory CD4+ T cells) were determined. ACT1 expression and binding to IL-17RA were assessed by Western blot and co-immunoprecipitation in HEK-293T cells transfected with plasmids encoding wild-type or mutant HA-tagged ACT1 and Flag-IL-17RA. We evaluated IL-17A responses by measuring luciferase induction under a NF-κB-driven reporter system in HEK-293T cells and Gro-α secretion in fibroblasts. RESULTS: A STAT1 variant (c.1363G>A/p.V455I) was identified by next-generation sequencing and classified as likely non-pathogenic as functional testing revealed normal STAT1 expression and phosphorylation upon IFN-γ. We also found compound heterozygous variants (c.1325A>G/p.D451G and c.1335delA/p.K454fs11*) of TRAF3IP2. By overexpression, despite normal protein expression, and impaired (K454fs11*) or normal (D451G) interaction with IL-17RA, both mutant alleles resulted in impaired NF-κB activation. Patient's fibroblasts displayed abolished GRO-α secretion upon IL-17A stimulation. Finally, ex vivo CD4+ T cells showed increased IL-17A, IL-22, and IL-4 and normal low IFN-γ expression upon stimulation. CONCLUSION: We identify novel compound heterozygous variants of TRAFP3IP2 causing autosomal recessive ACT1 deficiency in a child with CMC and provide a review of the current literature.

Evaluation of respiratory complications in patients with X-linked and autosomal recessive agammaglobulinemia.

BACKGROUND: Congenital agammaglobulinemia is the first primary immunodeficiency disorder characterized by a defect in B lymphocyte development and subsequently decreased immunoglobulin levels. These patients are prone to suffer from recurrent infections mostly involving the respiratory tract. In this study, we aimed to describe in detail respiratory tract complications as the most prominent clinical feature among agammaglobulinemic patients. METHODS: A total number of 115 patients were included. Demographic, clinical, and genetic data were collected from the patients' medical records. Among the available patients, pulmonary function tests (PFTs) and/or high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) were performed. RESULTS: Respiratory tract complications (85.2%) especially pneumonia (62.6%) were the most prominent clinical features in our cohort. Among patients with abnormal PFT results (N = 19), a mixed respiratory pattern was observed in 36.8%. HRCT was carried out in 29 patients; Bhalla scoring-based evaluation of these patients indicated excellent (44.8%), followed by good (34.5%) and mild (20.7%) results. Bronchiectasis was found in 13 patients undergoing HRCT (44.8%). We found significant inverse correlations between the Bhalla score and incidence rate of pneumonia, as well as the presence of bronchiectasis. Patients with abnormal PFT results had statistically significant higher bronchiectasis frequency and lower Bhalla scores compared to those with normal results. Forty-one patients were deceased, and here, respiratory failure was the most common cause of death (45.5%). CONCLUSION: High prevalence of respiratory tract infections among agammaglobulinemic patients and subsequent progression to permanent lung damage highlights the importance of implementing respiratory evaluation as part of routine follow-up program of agammaglobulinemic patients. Physicians should be aware of this and regularly monitor the respiratory function of these patients to allow for timely diagnosis and treatment initiation aiming to improve patients' prognosis and quality of life.

Comprehensive assessment of respiratory complications in patients with common variable immunodeficiency.

BACKGROUND: Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is a heterogeneous group of disorders, characterized by recurrent upper and lower respiratory tract infections and some noninfectious clinical complications. OBJECTIVE: To provide a detailed evaluation of respiratory presentations and complications in a cohort of Iranian patients with CVID. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was conducted on 245 CVID patients who were recorded in the Iranian primary immunodeficiency disorders registry network. Respiratory manifestations were evaluated by reviewing clinical hospital records, immunologic findings, pulmonary function tests (PFT), and high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) scans. RESULTS: Most of the patients (n = 208, 85.2%) had experienced at least 1 episode of acute respiratory manifestation, and pneumonia was observed in 31.6 % (n = 77) of cases as a first disease manifestation. During the follow-up, pneumonia, sinusitis, and otitis media were documented in 166 (68.6%), 125 (51.2%), and 103 (42.6%) cases, respectively. Abnormal PFT measurements were documented in 53.8% of patients. Among these patients, 21.5% showed restrictive changes, whereas 18.4% of patients showed an obstructive pattern. Bronchiectasis was the most frequent radiological finding, confirmed in 27.2% of patients. Patients with bronchiectasis were older at the time of immunodeficiency diagnosis (P < .001) and had longer diagnosis delay (P < .001) when compared with patients without bronchiectasis. CONCLUSION: This study highlights the importance of monitoring the respiratory tract system even in asymptomatic patients. Pulmonary function tests and CT scans are the most commonly used techniques aiming to identify these patients early, aiming to reduce the rate of long-term respiratory complications.

Identifying functional defects in patients with immune dysregulation due to LRBA and CTLA-4 mutations.

Heterozygous CTLA-4 deficiency has been reported as a monogenic cause of common variable immune deficiency with features of immune dysregulation. Direct mutation in CTLA-4 leads to defective regulatory T-cell (Treg) function associated with impaired ability to control levels of the CTLA-4 ligands, CD80 and CD86. However, additional mutations affecting the CTLA-4 pathway, such as those recently reported for LRBA, indirectly affect CTLA-4 expression, resulting in clinically similar disorders. Robust phenotyping approaches sensitive to defects in the CTLA-4 pathway are therefore required to inform understanding of such immune dysregulation syndromes. Here, we describe assays capable of distinguishing a variety of defects in the CTLA-4 pathway. Assessing total CTLA-4 expression levels was found to be optimal when restricting analysis to the CD45RA-Foxp3+ fraction. CTLA-4 induction following stimulation, and the use of lysosomal-blocking compounds, distinguished CTLA-4 from LRBA mutations. Short-term T-cell stimulation improved the capacity for discriminating the Foxp3+ Treg compartment, clearly revealing Treg expansions in these disorders. Finally, we developed a functionally orientated assay to measure ligand uptake by CTLA-4, which is sensitive to ligand-binding or -trafficking mutations, that would otherwise be difficult to detect and that is appropriate for testing novel mutations in CTLA-4 pathway genes. These approaches are likely to be of value in interpreting the functional significance of mutations in the CTLA-4 pathway identified by gene-sequencing approaches.

Phenotype, penetrance, and treatment of 133 cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4-insufficient subjects.

BACKGROUND: Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) is a negative immune regulator. Heterozygous CTLA4 germline mutations can cause a complex immune dysregulation syndrome in human subjects. OBJECTIVE: We sought to characterize the penetrance, clinical features, and best treatment options in 133 CTLA4 mutation carriers. METHODS: Genetics, clinical features, laboratory values, and outcomes of treatment options were assessed in a worldwide cohort of CTLA4 mutation carriers. RESULTS: We identified 133 subjects from 54 unrelated families carrying 45 different heterozygous CTLA4 mutations, including 28 previously undescribed mutations. Ninety mutation carriers were considered affected, suggesting a clinical penetrance of at least 67%; median age of onset was 11 years, and the mortality rate within affected mutation carriers was 16% (n = 15). Main clinical manifestations included hypogammaglobulinemia (84%), lymphoproliferation (73%), autoimmune cytopenia (62%), and respiratory (68%), gastrointestinal (59%), or neurological features (29%). Eight affected mutation carriers had lymphoma, and 3 had gastric cancer. An EBV association was found in 6 patients with malignancies. CTLA4 mutations were associated with lymphopenia and decreased T-, B-, and natural killer (NK) cell counts. Successful targeted therapies included application of CTLA-4 fusion proteins, mechanistic target of rapamycin inhibitors, and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. EBV reactivation occurred in 2 affected mutation carriers after immunosuppression. CONCLUSIONS: Affected mutation carriers with CTLA-4 insufficiency can present in any medical specialty. Family members should be counseled because disease manifestation can occur as late as 50 years of age. EBV- and cytomegalovirus-associated complications must be closely monitored. Treatment interventions should be coordinated in clinical trials.

Study of an extended family with CTLA-4 deficiency suggests a CD28/CTLA-4 independent mechanism responsible for differences in disease manifestations and severity.

The CTLA-4 checkpoint regulates the activation of T cells. Individuals with heterozygous mutations in CTLA-4 have a complex phenotype typically characterized by antibody deficiency alongside variable autoimmunity. Despite severe disease in some individuals, others remain largely unaffected with reasons for this variation unknown. We studied a large family carrying a single point mutation in CTLA-4 leading to an amino acid change R75W and compared both unaffected with affected individuals. We measured a variety of features pertaining to T cell and CTLA-4 biology and observed that at the cellular level there was complete penetrance of CTLA-4 mutations. Accordingly, unaffected individuals were indistinguishable from those with disease in terms of level of CTLA-4 expression, percentage of Treg, upregulation of CTLA-4 upon stimulation and proliferation of CD4 T cells. We conclude that the wide variation in disease phenotype is influenced by immune variation outside of CTLA-4 biology.

CD57 identifies T cells with functional senescence before terminal differentiation and relative telomere shortening in patients with activated PI3 kinase delta syndrome.

Premature T-cell immunosenescence with CD57+ CD8+ T-cell accumulation has been linked to immunodeficiency and autoimmunity in primary immunodeficiencies including activated PI3 kinase delta syndrome (APDS). To address whether CD57 marks the typical senescent T-cell population seen in adult individuals or identifies a distinct population in APDS, we compared CD57+ CD8+ T cells from mostly pediatric APDS patients to those of healthy adults with similarly prominent senescent T cells. CD57+ CD8+ T cells from APDS patients were less differentiated with more CD27+ CD28+ effector memory T cells showing increased PD1 and Eomesodermin expression. In addition, transition of naïve to CD57+ CD8+ T cells was not associated with the characteristic telomere shortening. Nevertheless, they showed the increased interferon-gamma secretion, enhanced degranulation and reduced in vitro proliferation typical of senescent CD57+ CD8+ T cells. Thus, hyperactive PI3 kinase signaling favors premature accumulation of a CD57+ CD8+ T-cell population, which shows most functional features of typical senescent T cells, but is different in terms of differentiation and relative telomere shortening. Initial observations indicate that this specific differentiation state may offer the opportunity to revert premature T-cell immunosenescence and its potential contribution to inflammation and immunodeficiency in APDS.

Long-Term Impact of an Educational Antimicrobial Stewardship Program on Hospital-Acquired Candidemia and Multidrug-Resistant Bloodstream Infections: A Quasi-Experimental Study of Interrupted Time-Series Analysis.

BACKGROUND: The global crisis of bacterial resistance urges the scientific community to implement intervention programs in healthcare facilities to promote an appropriate use of antibiotics. However, the clinical benefits or the impact on resistance of these interventions has not been definitively proved. METHODS: We designed a quasi-experimental intervention study with an interrupted time-series analysis. A multidisciplinary team conducted a multifaceted educational intervention in our tertiary-care hospital over a 5-year period. The main activity of the program consisted of peer-to-peer educational interviews between counselors and prescribers from all departments to reinforce the principles of the proper use of antibiotics. We assessed antibiotic consumption, incidence density of Candida and multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria bloodstream infections (BSIs) and their crude death rate per 1000 occupied bed days (OBDs). RESULTS: A quick and intense reduction in antibiotic consumption occurred 6 months after the implementation of the intervention (change in level, -216.8 defined daily doses per 1000 OBDs; 95% confidence interval, -347.5 to -86.1), and was sustained during subsequent years (average reduction, -19,9%). In addition, the increasing trend observed in the preintervention period for the incidence density of candidemia and MDR BSI (+0.018 cases per 1000 OBDs per quarter; 95% confidence interval, -.003 to .039) reverted toward a decreasing trend of -0.130 per quarter (change in slope, -0.029; -.051 to -.008), and so did the mortality rate (change in slope, -0.015; -.021 to -.008). CONCLUSIONS: This education-based antimicrobial stewardship program was effective in decreasing the incidence and mortality rate of hospital-acquired candidemia and MDR BSI through sustained reduction in antibiotic use.

Prospective neonatal screening for severe T- and B-lymphocyte deficiencies in Seville.

BACKGROUND: Early diagnosis of primary immunodeficiency such as severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) and X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) improves outcome of affected children. T-cell-receptor-excision circles (TRECs) and kappa-deleting-recombination-excision circles (KRECs) determination from dried blood spots (DBS) identify neonates with severe T- and/or B-lymphopenia. No prospective data exist of the impact of gestational age (GA) and birth weight (BW) on TRECs and KRECs values. METHODS: TRECs and KRECs determination using triplex RT-PCR (TRECS-KRECS-ß-actin-Assay) from prospectively collected DBS between 02/2014 and 02/2015 in three hospitals in Seville, Spain. Cut-off levels were TRECs < 6/punch, KRECs < 4/punch and -ß-actin>700/punch. Internal (SCID, XLA, ataxia telangiectasia) and external controls (NBS quality assurance program, CDC) were included. RESULTS: A total of 5160 DBS were tested. Re-punch was needed in 77 samples (1.5%) due to insufficient ß-actin (<700 copies/punch). Pre-term neonates (GA<37 weeks) and neonates with a BW<2500 g showed significantly lower TRECs and KRECs levels (p < 0.001). Due to repeat positive results five neonates were re-called (<0.1%): Fatal chromosomopathy (n = 1; TRECs 1/KRECs 4); extreme pre-maturity (n = 2; TRECs 0/KRECs 0 and TRECs 1/KRECs 20 copies/punch); neonates born to mothers receiving azathioprine during pregnancy (n = 2; TRECs 92/KRECs 1 and TRECs 154/KRECs 3 copies/punch). All internal and external controls were correctly identified. CONCLUSIONS: TRECS-KRECS-ß-actin-Assay correctly identifies T- and B-cell lymphopenias. Pre-maturity and low BW is associated with lower TREC and KREC levels. Extreme pre-maturity and maternal immune suppressive therapy may be a cause for false positive results of TRECs and KRECs values, respectively. To reduce the rate of insufficient samples, DBS extraction and storage need to be improved.

Activated PI3Kδ syndrome type 2: Two patients, a novel mutation, and review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: Autosomal dominant gain-of-function mutations in PIK3R1 encoding for the regulatory subunit (p85α, p55α, and p50α) of Class IA phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) result in the activated PI3Kδ syndrome (APDS) type 2 characterized by childhood-onset combined immunodeficiency, lymphoproliferation, and immune dysregulation. To improve clinical awareness and understanding of these rare diseases, we reviewed all hitherto published cases with APDS type 1 and type 2 for their clinical and immunologic symptoms and added novel clinical, immunologic, and genetic findings of two patients with APDS type 2. METHODS: Clinical, immunologic, and genetic evaluation of two new patients with APDS2 was performed followed by the systematic collection of all available previously published data of patients with APDS1 and APDS2. RESULTS: Patients with APDS type 1 (n = 49) and type 2 (n = 15) showed an indistinguishable immunologic phenotype. Overlapping clinical features shared by APDS type 1 and type 2 were observed, but our review also revealed previously unnoticed clinical differences such as remarkably high incidence of microcephaly, poor growth/short stature in patients with APDS2. Clinical management and outcome were variable and included prophylactic antibiotics, immunosuppression, immunoglobulin substitution, and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. CONCLUSIONS: A disease-specific registry collecting prospective and long-term follow-up data of patients with APDS, as currently set up by the European Society for Immunodeficiencies, are needed to better understand the natural history and to optimize treatment concepts and thereby improving the outcome of this heterogenous patient group.

Diagnostic and therapeutic challenges in a child with complete interferon-γ receptor 1 deficiency.

Autosomal recessive (AR) complete Interferon-γ Receptor1 (IFN-γR1) deficiency is a rare variant of Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial disease (MSMD). Although hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) remains the only curative treatment, outcomes are heterogeneous; delayed engraftment and/or graft rejection being commonly observed. This case report and literature review expands the knowledge about this rare but potentially fatal pathology, providing details regarding diagnosis, antimicrobial treatment, transplant performance, and outcome that may help to guide physicians caring for patients with AR complete IFN-γR1 or IFN-γR2 deficiency.