Cytoplasmic Localization of Proline, Glutamic Acid, Leucine-rich Protein 1 (PELP1) Induces Breast Epithelial Cell Migration through Up-regulation of Inhibitor of κB Kinase ϵ and Inflammatory Cross-talk with Macrophages.

Cytoplasmic localization of proline, glutamic acid, leucine-rich protein 1 (PELP1) is observed in ∼40% of women with invasive breast cancer. In mouse models, PELP1 overexpression in the mammary gland leads to premalignant lesions and eventually mammary tumors. In preliminary clinical studies, cytoplasmic localization of PELP1 was seen in 36% of women at high risk of developing breast cancer. Here, we investigated whether cytoplasmic PELP1 signaling promotes breast cancer initiation in models of immortalized human mammary epithelial cells (HMECs). Global gene expression analysis was performed on HMEC lines expressing vector control, PELP1-wt, or mutant PELP1 in which the nuclear localization sequence was altered, resulting in cytoplasmic localization of PELP1 (PELP1-cyto). Global gene expression analysis identified that PELP1-cyto expression in HMECs induced NF-κB signaling pathways. Western blotting analysis of PELP1-cyto HMECs showed up-regulation of inhibitor of κB kinase ϵ (IKKϵ) and increased phosphorylation of the NF-κB subunit RelB. To determine whether secreted factors produced by PELP1-cyto HMECs promote macrophage activation, THP-1 macrophages were treated with HMEC-conditioned medium (CM). PELP1-cyto CM induced changes in THP-1 gene expression as compared with control cell CM. Double conditioned medium (DCM) from the activated THP-1 cells was then applied to HMECs to determine whether paracrine signaling from PELP1-cyto-activated macrophages could in turn promote migration of HMECs. PELP1-cyto DCM induced robust HMEC migration, which was reduced in DCM from PELP1-cyto HMECs expressing IKKϵ shRNA. Our findings suggest that cytoplasmic localization of PELP1 up-regulates pro-tumorigenic IKKϵ and secreted inflammatory signals, which through paracrine macrophage activation regulates the migratory phenotype associated with breast cancer initiation.

Mammary gland specific expression of Brk/PTK6 promotes delayed involution and tumor formation associated with activation of p38 MAPK.

INTRODUCTION: Protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) are frequently overexpressed and/or activated in human malignancies, and regulate cancer cell proliferation, cellular survival, and migration. As such, they have become promising molecular targets for new therapies. The non-receptor PTK termed breast tumor kinase (Brk/PTK6) is overexpressed in approximately 86% of human breast tumors. The role of Brk in breast pathology is unclear. METHODS: We expressed a WAP-driven Brk/PTK6 transgene in FVB/n mice, and analyzed mammary glands from wild-type (wt) and transgenic mice after forced weaning. Western blotting and immunohistochemistry (IHC) studies were conducted to visualize markers of mammary gland involution, cell proliferation and apoptosis, as well as Brk, STAT3, and activated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in mammary tissues and tumors from WAP-Brk mice. Human (HMEC) or mouse (HC11) mammary epithelial cells were stably or transiently transfected with Brk cDNA to assay p38 MAPK signaling and cell survival in suspension or in response to chemotherapeutic agents. RESULTS: Brk-transgenic dams exhibited delayed mammary gland involution and aged mice developed infrequent tumors with reduced latency relative to wt mice. Consistent with delayed involution, mammary glands of transgenic animals displayed decreased STAT3 phosphorylation, a marker of early-stage involution. Notably, p38 MAPK, a pro-survival signaling mediator downstream of Brk, was activated in mammary glands of Brk transgenic relative to wt mice. Brk-dependent signaling to p38 MAPK was recapitulated by Brk overexpression in the HC11 murine mammary epithelial cell (MEC) line and human MEC, while Brk knock-down in breast cancer cells blocked EGF-stimulated p38 signaling. Additionally, human or mouse MECs expressing Brk exhibited increased anchorage-independent survival and resistance to doxorubicin. Finally, breast tumor biopsies were subjected to IHC analysis for co-expression of Brk and phospho-p38 MAPK; ductal and lobular carcinomas expressing Brk were significantly more likely to express elevated phospho-p38 MAPK. CONCLUSIONS: These studies illustrate that forced expression of Brk/PTK6 in non-transformed mammary epithelial cells mediates p38 MAPK phosphorylation and promotes increased cellular survival, delayed involution, and latent tumor formation. Brk expression in human breast tumors may contribute to progression by inducing p38-driven pro-survival signaling pathways.

Uptake of 2-NBDG as a method to monitor therapy response in breast cancer cell lines.

This study quantifies uptake of a fluorescent glucose analog, (2-(N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)amino)-2-deoxyglucose) (2-NBDG), in a large panel of breast cancer cells and demonstrates potential to monitor changes in glycolysis caused by anticancer and endocrine therapies. Expressions of glucose transporter (GLUT 1) and hexokinase (HK I), which phosphorylates 2-NBDG, were measured via western blot in two normal mammary epithelial and eight breast cancer cell lines of varying biological subtype. Fluorescence intensity of each cell line labeled with 100 lM 2-NBDG for 20 min or unlabeled control was quantified. A subset of cancer cells was treated with anticancer and endocrine therapies, and 2-NBDG fluorescence changes were measured. Expression of GLUT 1 was necessary for uptake of 2-NBDG, as demonstrated by lack of 2-NBDG uptake in normal human mammary epithelial cells (HMECs). GLUT 1 expression and 2-NBDG uptake was ubiquitous among all breast cancer lines. Reduction and stimulation of 2-NBDG uptake was demonstrated by perturbation with anticancer agents, lonidamine (LND), and a-cyano-hydroxycinnamate (a-Cinn), respectively. LND directly inhibits HK and significantly reduced 2-NBDG fluorescence in a subset of two breast cancer cell lines. Conversely, when cells were treated with a-Cinn, a drug used to increase glycolysis, 2-NBDG uptake was increased. Furthermore, tamoxifen (tam), a common endocrine therapy, was administered to estrogen receptor positive and negative (ER?/-) breast cells and demonstrated a decreased 2-NBDG uptake in ER? cells, reflecting a decrease in glycolysis. Results indicate that 2-NBDG uptake can be used to measure changes in glycolysis and has potential for use in early drug development.

PELP1/SRC-3-dependent regulation of metabolic PFKFB kinases drives therapy resistant ER+ breast cancer.

Recurrence of metastatic breast cancer stemming from acquired endocrine and chemotherapy resistance remains a health burden for women with luminal (ER+) breast cancer. Disseminated ER+ tumor cells can remain viable but quiescent for years to decades. Contributing factors to metastatic spread include the maintenance and expansion of breast cancer stem cells (CSCs). Breast CSCs frequently exist as a minority population in therapy resistant tumors. In this study, we show that cytoplasmic complexes composed of steroid receptor (SR) co-activators, PELP1 and SRC-3, modulate breast CSC expansion through upregulation of the HIF-activated metabolic target genes PFKFB3 and PFKFB4. Seahorse metabolic assays demonstrated that cytoplasmic PELP1 influences cellular metabolism by increasing both glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration. PELP1 interacts with PFKFB3 and PFKFB4 proteins, and inhibition of PFKFB3 and PFKFB4 kinase activity blocks PELP1-induced tumorspheres and protein-protein interactions with SRC-3. PFKFB4 knockdown inhibited in vivo emergence of circulating tumor cell (CTC) populations in mammary intraductal (MIND) models. Application of PFKFB inhibitors in combination with ER targeted therapies blocked tumorsphere formation in multiple models of advanced breast cancer including tamoxifen (TamR) and paclitaxel (TaxR) resistant models, murine tumor cells, and ER+ patient-derived organoids (PDxO). Together, our data suggest that PELP1, SRC-3, and PFKFBs cooperate to drive ER+ tumor cell populations that include CSCs and CTCs. Identifying non-ER pharmacological targets offers a useful approach to blocking metastatic escape from standard of care ER/estrogen (E2)-targeted strategies to overcome endocrine and chemotherapy resistance.

90 YEARS OF PROGESTERONE: Steroid receptors as MAPK signaling sensors in breast cancer: let the fates decide.

Steroid hormone receptors (SRs) are classically defined as ligand-activated transcription factors that function as master regulators of gene programs important for a wide range of processes governing adult physiology, development, and cell or tissue homeostasis. A second function of SRs includes the ability to activate cytoplasmic signaling pathways. Estrogen (ER), androgen (AR), and progesterone (PR) receptors bind directly to membrane-associated signaling molecules including mitogenic protein kinases (i.e. c-SRC and AKT), G-proteins, and ion channels to mediate context-dependent actions via rapid activation of downstream signaling pathways. In addition to making direct contact with diverse signaling molecules, SRs are further fully integrated with signaling pathways by virtue of their N-terminal phosphorylation sites that act as regulatory hot-spots capable of sensing the signaling milieu. In particular, ER, AR, PR, and closely related glucocorticoid receptors (GR) share the property of accepting (i.e. sensing) ligand-independent phosphorylation events by proline-directed kinases in the MAPK and CDK families. These signaling inputs act as a 'second ligand' that dramatically impacts cell fate. In the face of drugs that reliably target SR ligand-binding domains to block uncontrolled cancer growth, ligand-independent post-translational modifications guide changes in cell fate that confer increased survival, EMT, migration/invasion, stemness properties, and therapy resistance of non-proliferating SR+ cancer cell subpopulations. The focus of this review is on MAPK pathways in the regulation of SR+ cancer cell fate. MAPK-dependent phosphorylation of PR (Ser294) and GR (Ser134) will primarily be discussed in light of the need to target changes in breast cancer cell fate as part of modernized combination therapies.

CpG island tumor suppressor promoter methylation in non-BRCA-associated early mammary carcinogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Only 5% of all breast cancers are the result of BRCA1/2 mutations. Methylation silencing of tumor suppressor genes is well described in sporadic breast cancer; however, its role in familial breast cancer is not known. METHODS: CpG island promoter methylation was tested in the initial random periareolar fine-needle aspiration sample from 109 asymptomatic women at high risk for breast cancer. Promoter methylation targets included RARB (M3 and M4), ESR1, INK4a/ARF, BRCA1, PRA, PRB, RASSF1A, HIN-1, and CRBP1. RESULTS: Although the overall frequency of CpG island promoter methylation events increased with age (P<0.0001), no specific methylation event was associated with age. In contrast, CpG island methylation of RARB M4 (P=0.051), INK4a/ARF (P=0.042), HIN-1 (P=0.044), and PRA (P=0.032), as well as the overall frequency of methylation events (P=0.004), was associated with abnormal Masood cytology. The association between promoter methylation and familial breast cancer was tested in 40 unaffected premenopausal women in our cohort who underwent BRCA1/2 mutation testing. Women with BRCA1/2 mutations had a low frequency of CpG island promoter methylation (15 of 15 women had

ESR1 promoter hypermethylation does not predict atypia in RPFNA nor persistent atypia after 12 months tamoxifen chemoprevention.

PURPOSE: Currently, we lack biomarkers to predict whether high-risk women with mammary atypia will respond to tamoxifen chemoprevention. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Thirty-four women with cytologic mammary atypia from the Duke University High-Risk clinic were offered tamoxifen chemoprevention. We tested whether ESR1 promoter hypermethylation and/or estrogen receptor (ER) protein expression by immunohistochemistry predicted persistent atypia in 18 women who were treated with tamoxifen for 12 months and in 16 untreated controls. RESULTS: We observed a statistically significant decrease in the Masood score of women on tamoxifen chemoprevention for 12 months compared with control women. This was a significant interaction effect of time (0, 6, and 12 months) and treatment group (tamoxifen versus control) P = 0.0007. However, neither ESR1 promoter hypermethylation nor low ER expression predicted persistent atypia in Random Periareolar Fine Needle Aspiration after 12 months tamoxifen prevention. CONCLUSIONS: Results from this single institution pilot study provide evidence that, unlike for invasive breast cancer, ESR1 promoter hypermethylation and/or low ER expression is not a reliable marker of tamoxifen-resistant atypia.

Cancer Stem Cell Phenotypes in ER+ Breast Cancer Models Are Promoted by PELP1/AIB1 Complexes.

Proline, glutamic acid, leucine-rich protein 1 (PELP1) is overexpressed in approximately 80% of invasive breast tumors. PELP1 dynamically shuttles between the nucleus and cytoplasm, but is primarily nuclear in normal breast tissue. However, altered localization of PELP1 to the cytoplasm is an oncogenic event that promotes breast cancer initiation and progression. Herein, interacting partners unique to cytoplasmic PELP1 and the mechanisms by which these interactions promote oncogenic PELP1 signaling were sought. AIB1 (amplified in breast cancer 1; also known as SRC-3 or NCOA3) was identified as a novel binding partner of cytoplasmic PELP1 in both estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) and ER-negative cell lines. Cytoplasmic PELP1 expression elevated basal phosphorylation levels (i.e., activation) of AIB1 at Thr24, enhanced ALDH+ tumorsphere formation, and upregulated specific target genes independently of hormone stimulation. Direct manipulation of AIB1 levels using shRNA abrogated cytoplasmic PELP1-induced tumorsphere formation and downregulated cytoplasmic PELP1-specific target genes. SI-2, an AIB1 inhibitor, limited the PELP1/AIB1 interaction and decreased cytoplasmic PELP1-induced tumorsphere formation. Similar results were observed in a murine-derived MMTV-AIB1 tumor cell line. Furthermore, in vivo syngeneic tumor studies revealed that PELP1 knockdown resulted in increased survival of tumor-bearing mice as compared with mice injected with control cells.Implications: These data demonstrate that cytoplasmic PELP1/AIB1-containing complexes function to promote advanced cancer phenotypes, including outgrowth of stem-like cells, associated with estrogen-independent breast cancer progression. Mol Cancer Res; 16(4); 707-19. ©2018 AACR.

Taxol Induces Brk-dependent Prosurvival Phenotypes in TNBC Cells through an AhR/GR/HIF-driven Signaling Axis.

The metastatic cascade is a complex process that requires cancer cells to survive despite conditions of high physiologic stress. Previously, cooperation between the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF) was reported as a point of convergence for host and cellular stress signaling. These studies indicated p38 MAPK-dependent phosphorylation of GR on Ser134 and subsequent p-GR/HIF-dependent induction of breast tumor kinase (PTK6/Brk), as a mediator of aggressive cancer phenotypes. Herein, p-Ser134 GR was quantified in human primary breast tumors (n = 281) and the levels of p-GR were increased in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) relative to luminal breast cancer. Brk was robustly induced following exposure of TNBC model systems to chemotherapeutic agents (Taxol or 5-fluorouracil) and growth in suspension [ultra-low attachment (ULA)]. Notably, both Taxol and ULA resulted in upregulation of the Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a known mediator of cancer prosurvival phenotypes. Mechanistically, AhR and GR copurified and following chemotherapy and ULA, these factors assembled at the Brk promoter and induced Brk expression in an HIF-dependent manner. Furthermore, Brk expression was upregulated in Taxol-resistant breast cancer (MCF-7) models. Ultimately, Brk was critical for TNBC cell proliferation and survival during Taxol treatment and in the context of ULA as well as for basal cancer cell migration, acquired biological phenotypes that enable cancer cells to successfully complete the metastatic cascade. These studies nominate AhR as a p-GR binding partner and reveal ways to target epigenetic events such as adaptive and stress-induced acquisition of cancer skill sets required for metastatic cancer spread.Implication: Breast cancer cells enlist intracellular stress response pathways that evade chemotherapy by increasing cancer cell survival and promoting migratory phenotypes. Mol Cancer Res; 16(11); 1761-72. ©2018 AACR.

The type III TGF-beta receptor signals through both Smad3 and the p38 MAP kinase pathways to contribute to inhibition of cell proliferation.

Transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) has an important role as a negative regulator of cellular proliferation. The type III transforming growth factor beta receptor (TbetaRIII) has an emerging role as both a TGFbeta superfamily co-receptor and in mediating signaling through its cytoplasmic domain. In L6 myoblasts, TbetaRIII expression enhanced TGFbeta1-mediated growth inhibition, with this effect mediated, in part, by the TbetaRIII cytoplasmic domain. The effects of TbetaRIII were not due to altered ligand presentation or to differences in Smad2 phosphorylation. Instead, TbetaRIII specifically increased Smad3 phosphorylation, both basal and TGFbeta-stimulated Smad3 nuclear localization and Smad3-dependent activation of reporter genes independent of its cytoplasmic domain. Conversely, SB431542, a type I transforming growth factor beta receptor (TbetaRI) inhibitor, as well as dominant-negative Smad3 specifically and significantly abrogated the effects of TbetaRIII on TGFbeta1-mediated inhibition of proliferation. TbetaRIII also specifically increased p38 phosphorylation, and SB203580, a p38 kinase inhibitor, specifically and significantly abrogated the effects of TbetaRIII/TGFbeta1-mediated inhibition of proliferation in L6 myoblasts and in primary human epithelial cells. Importantly, treatment with the TbetaRI and p38 inhibitors together had additive effects on abrogating TbetaRIII/TGFbeta1-mediated inhibition of proliferation. In a reciprocal manner, short hairpin RNA-mediated knockdown of endogenous TbetaRIII in various human epithelial cells attenuated TGFbeta1-mediated inhibition of proliferation. Taken together, these data demonstrate that TbetaRIII contributes to and enhances TGFbeta-mediated growth inhibition through both TbetaRI/Smad3-dependent and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways.

Modifications to glucocorticoid and progesterone receptors alter cell fate in breast cancer.

Steroid hormone receptors (SRs) are heavily posttranslationally modified by the reversible addition of a variety of molecular moieties, including phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, SUMOylation, and ubiquitination. These rapid and dynamic modifications may be combinatorial and interact (i.e. may be sequential, complement, or oppose each other), creating a vast array of uniquely modified receptor subspecies that allow for diverse receptor behaviors that enable highly sensitive and context-dependent hormone action. For example, in response to hormone or growth factor membrane-initiated signaling events, posttranslational modifications (PTMs) to SRs alter protein-protein interactions that govern the complex process of promoter or gene-set selection coupled to transcriptional repression or activation. Unique phosphorylation events allow SRs to associate or disassociate with specific cofactors that may include pioneer factors and other tethering partners, which specify the resulting transcriptome and ultimately change cell fate. The impact of PTMs on SR action is particularly profound in the context of breast tumorigenesis, in which frequent alterations in growth factor-initiated signaling pathways occur early and act as drivers of breast cancer progression toward endocrine resistance. In this article, with primary focus on breast cancer relevance, we review the mechanisms by which PTMs, including reversible phosphorylation events, regulate the closely related SRs, glucocorticoid receptor and progesterone receptor, allowing for precise biological responses to ever-changing hormonal stimuli.

Cytoplasmic PELP1 and ERRgamma protect human mammary epithelial cells from Tam-induced cell death.

Tamoxifen (Tam) is the only FDA-approved chemoprevention agent for pre-menopausal women at high risk for developing breast cancer. While Tam reduces a woman's risk of developing estrogen receptor positive (ER+) breast cancer, the molecular mechanisms associated with risk reduction are poorly understood. Prior studies have shown that cytoplasmic proline, glutamic acid and leucine rich protein 1 (PELP1) promotes Tam resistance in breast cancer cell lines. Herein, we tested for PELP1 localization in breast epithelial cells from women at high risk for developing breast cancer and found that PELP1 was localized to the cytoplasm in 36% of samples. In vitro, immortalized HMECs expressing a nuclear localization signal (NLS) mutant of PELP1 (PELP1-cyto) were resistant to Tam-induced death. Furthermore, PELP1-cyto signaling through estrogen-related receptor gamma (ERRγ) promoted cell survival in the presence of Tam. Overexpression of ERRγ in immortalized HMECs protected cells from Tam-induced death, while knockdown of ERRγ sensitized PELP1-cyto expressing HMECs to Tam. Moreover, Tam-induced HMEC cell death was independent of apoptosis and involved accumulation of the autophagy marker LC3-II. Expression of PELP1-cyto and ERRγ reduced Tam-induced LC3-II accumulation, and knockdown of ERRγ increased LC3-II levels in response to Tam. Additionally, PELP1-cyto expression led to the upregulation of MMP-3 and MAOB, known PELP1 and ERRγ target genes, respectively. Our data indicate that cytoplasmic PELP1 induces signaling pathways that converge on ERRγ to promote cell survival in the presence of Tam. These data suggest that PELP1 localization and/or ERRγ activation could be developed as tissue biomarkers for Tam responsiveness.

PELP1: a review of PELP1 interactions, signaling, and biology.

Proline, glutamic acid, and leucine rich protein 1 (PELP1) is a large multi-domain protein that has been shown to modulate an increasing number of pathways and biological processes. The first reports describing the cloning and characterization of PELP1 showed that it was an estrogen receptor coactivator. PELP1 has now been shown to be a coregulator for a growing number of transcription factors. Furthermore, recent reports have shown that PELP1 is a member of chromatin remodeling complexes. In addition to PELP1 nuclear functions, it has been shown to have cytoplasmic signaling functions as well. In the cytoplasm PELP1 acts as a scaffold molecule and mediates rapid signaling from growth factor and hormone receptors. PELP1 signaling ultimately plays a role in cancer biology by increasing proliferation and metastasis, among other cellular processes. Here we will review (1) the cloning and characterization of PELP1 expression, (2) interacting proteins, (3) PELP1 signaling, and (4) PELP1-mediated biology.

Evidence for phenotypic plasticity in aggressive triple-negative breast cancer: human biology is recapitulated by a novel model system.

Breast cancers with a basal-like gene signature are primarily triple-negative, frequently metastatic, and carry a poor prognosis. Basal-like breast cancers are enriched for markers of breast cancer stem cells as well as markers of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). While EMT is generally thought to be important in the process of metastasis, in vivo evidence of EMT in human disease remains rare. Here we report a novel model of human triple-negative breast cancer, the DKAT cell line, which was isolated from an aggressive, treatment-resistant triple-negative breast cancer that demonstrated morphological and biochemical evidence suggestive of phenotypic plasticity in the patient. The DKAT cell line displays a basal-like phenotype in vitro when cultured in serum-free media, and undergoes phenotypic changes consistent with EMT/MET in response to serum-containing media, a unique property among the breast cancer cell lines we tested. This EMT is marked by increased expression of the transcription factor Zeb1, and Zeb1 is required for the enhanced migratory ability of DKAT cells in the mesenchymal state. DKAT cells also express progenitor-cell markers, and single DKAT cells are able to generate tumorspheres containing both epithelial and mesenchymal cell types. In vivo, as few as ten DKAT cells are capable of forming xenograft tumors which display a range of epithelial and mesenchymal phenotypes. The DKAT model provides a novel model to study the molecular mechanisms regulating phenotypic plasticity and the aggressive biology of triple-negative breast cancers.

Monitoring of receptor dimerization using plasmonic coupling of gold nanoparticles.

The dimerization of receptors on the cell membrane is an important step in the activation of cell signaling pathways. Several methods exist for observing receptor dimerization, including coimmunoprecipitation, chemical cross-linking, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). These techniques are limited in that only FRET is appropriate for live cells, but even that method suffers from photobleaching and bleed-through effects. In this study, we implement an alternative method for the targeting of HER-2 homodimer formation based on the plasmonic coupling of gold nanoparticles functionalized with HER-2 Ab. In the presented studies, SK-BR-3 cells, known to overexpress HER-2, are labeled with these nanoparticles and receptor colocalization is observed using plasmonic coupling. HER-2 targeted nanoparticles bound to these cells exhibit a peak resonance that is significantly red-shifted relative to those bound to similar receptors on A549 cells, which have significantly lower levels of HER-2 expression. This significant red shift indicates plasmonic coupling is occurring and points to a new avenue for assessing dimerization by monitoring their colocalization. To determine that dimerization is occurring, the refractive index of the nanoenvironment of the labels is assessed using a theoretical analysis based on the Mie coated sphere model. The results indicate scattering by single, isolated nanoparticles for the low HER-2 expressing A549 cell line, but the scattering observed for the HER-2 overexpressing SK-BR-3 cell line may only be explained by plasmonic-coupling of proximal nanoparticle pairs. To validate the conformation of nanoparticles bound to HER-2 receptors undergoing dimerization, discrete dipole approximation (DDA) models are used to assess spectra of scattering by coupled nanoparticles. Comparison of the experimental results with theoretical models indicates that NP dimers are formed for the labeling of SK-BR-3 cells, suggesting that receptor dimerization has been observed.

Brk/PTK6 signaling in normal and cancer cell models.

Breast tumor kinase (Brk), also termed PTK6, is known to function in cell-type and context-dependent processes governing normal differentiation. However, in tumors in which Brk is overexpressed, this unusual soluble tyrosine kinase is emerging as a mediator of cancer cell phenotypes, including increased proliferation, survival, and migration. Nuclear and cytoplasmic substrates phosphorylated by Brk include a collection of regulatory RNA-binding proteins, adaptor molecules that link Brk to signaling pathways generally associated with the activation of growth factor receptors, and Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription (STAT) molecules that are direct regulators of gene expression. Understanding Brk-dependent regulation of these key signaling pathways and how they influence cancer cell behavior is predicted to inform the development of improved 'targeted' cancer therapies and may provide insight into ways to avoid chemo-resistance to established treatments.

Preferential accumulation of 5-aminolevulinic acid-induced protoporphyrin IX in breast cancer: a comprehensive study on six breast cell lines with varying phenotypes.

We describe the potential of 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA)-induced protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) fluorescence as a source of contrast for margin detection in commonly diagnosed breast cancer subtypes. Fluorescence intensity of PpIX in untreated and ALA-treated normal mammary epithelial and breast cancer cell lines of varying estrogen receptor expression were quantitatively imaged with confocal microscopy. Percentage change in fluorescence intensity integrated over 610-700 nm (attributed to PpIX) of posttreated compared to pretreated cells showed statistically significant differences between four breast cancer and two normal mammary epithelial cell lines. However, a direct comparison of post-treatment PpIX fluorescence intensities showed no differences between breast cancer and normal mammary epithelial cell lines due to confounding effects by endogenous fluorescence from flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). Clinically, it is impractical to obtain pre- and post-treatment images. Thus, spectral imaging was demonstrated as a means to remove the effects of endogenous FAD fluorescence allowing for discrimination between post-treatment PpIX fluorescence of four breast cancer and two normal mammary epithelial cell lines. Fluorescence spectral imaging of ALA-treated breast cancer cells showed preferential PpIX accumulation regardless of malignant phenotype and suggests a useful contrast mechanism for discrimination of residual cancer at the surface of breast tumor margins.

Application of the T-matrix method to determine the structure of spheroidal cell nuclei with angle-resolved light scattering.

We demonstrate an inverse light-scattering analysis procedure based on using the T-matrix method as a light-scattering model. We measure light scattered by in vitro cell monolayers using angle-resolved low-coherence interferometry (a/LCI) and compare the data to predictions of the T-matrix theory. The comparison yields measurements of the equal volume diameter and aspect ratio of the spheroid cell nuclei with accuracy comparable to quantitative image analysis of fixed and stained samples. These improvements represent a significant upgrade for the a/LCI technique, expanding both the range of tissue in which it is applicable and potentially increasing its value as a diagnostic tool.