Granulomatous meningoencephalitis and blindness associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex infection in a senile female chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes).

A 40-year old female chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) developed hyporexia, weight loss, followed by progressive and complete blindness. Tomography demonstrated an intracranial mass in the rostroventral brain involving the optic chiasm, with a presumptive diagnosis of neoplasm. However, histopathology revealed a granulomatous meningoencephalitis, and tissue samples tested positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Cell and Tissue Tropism of Brucella spp.

Brucella spp. are facultatively intracellular bacteria that can infect, survive, and multiply in various host cell types in vivo and/or in vitro. The genus Brucella has markedly expanded in recent years with the identification of novel species and hosts, which has revealed additional information about the cell and tissue tropism of these pathogens. Classically, Brucella spp. are considered to have tropism for organs that contain large populations of phagocytes such as lymph nodes, spleen, and liver, as well as for organs of the genital system, including the uterus, epididymis, testis, and placenta. However, experimental infections of several different cultured cell types indicate that Brucella may actually have a broader cell tropism than previously thought. Indeed, recent studies indicate that certain Brucella species in particular hosts may display a pantropic distribution in vivo. This review discusses the available knowledge on cell and tissue tropism of Brucella spp. in natural infections of various host species, as well as in experimental animal models and cultured cells.

Chylothorax associated with pulmonary compressive atelectasis in an emperor tamarin (Saguinus imperator).

Chylothorax is the accumulation of lymph in the thoracic cavity, and it has never been reported in neotropical primates. An emperor tamarin died and at necropsy chylothorax associated with pulmonary compressive atelectasis was diagnosed. Idiopathic chylothorax can be a cause of respiratory insufficiency and death in tamarins.

Polyarteritis nodosa in a captive common wooly monkey (Lagothrix lagotricha) associated with intestinal necrosis, peritonitis, and sepsis.

Polyarteritis nodosa is an idiopathic necrotizing vasculitis that affects small to medium-sized arteries. We describe a case of polyarteritis nodosa in a captive common wooly monkey (Lagothrix lagotricha) associated with transmural intestinal necrosis and secondary peritonitis. This condition must be considered for differential diagnosis of segmental arteritis in neotropical primates.

Mammaliicoccus (Staphylococcus) sciuri-induced suppurative meningoencephalitis and bacteremia in an infant western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

Mammaliicoccus (Staphylococcus) sciuri has been rarely associated with infections and sepsis in humans. A 3-month-old male western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), born under human care, died after a traumatic event. Histologic, microbiologic, and molecular findings in postmortem demonstrated a suppurative meningoencephalitis and bacteremia associated with M. sciuri infection.

Streptococcus pasteurianus-induced valvular endocarditis and sepsis in a puerperal emperor tamarin (Saguinus imperator).

Streptococcus pasteurianus is associated with endocarditis and sepsis in humans. A puerperal emperor tamarin died, and necropsy showed a bacterial endocarditis with sepsis. DNA sequencing from the paraffinized heart tissue was compatible with S. pasteurianus. S. pasteurianus could be an important agent associated with sepsis in tamarins.

Histopathologic and immunophenotypic profile of a spontaneous mammary carcinoma in a male Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin (Cebus albifrons).

A 20-year-old male captive Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin (Cebus albifrons) that died accidentally had a small non-ulcerative mammary nodule diagnosed as a mammary carcinoma. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated that neoplastic cells were positive for pan-cytokeratin and cytokeratin-7. Approximately 20% of neoplastic cells were positive for Ki-67. Neoplastic cells expressed estrogen and progesterone receptors.

Lethal acute diarrhea associated with Clostridioides difficile toxin A and B in a buffy-tufted-ear marmoset (Callithrix aurita).

This is a case of lethal acute diarrhea associated with a mild neutrophilic enteritis in a buffy-tufted-ear marmoset (Callithrix aurita) with detection of A/B toxins and isolation of a toxigenic clade 3 Clostridioides difficile strain (A+ B+ CDT+ , ST5), which should be considered as a potential cause of enteritis in this species.

A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF HEPATIC HEMOSIDEROSIS AND IRON STORAGE DISEASE IN SEVERAL CAPTIVE AND FREE-RANGING AVIAN SPECIES.

Some wild species of mammals and birds are prone to excessive iron accumulation, especially when maintained in human care. Hemosiderosis is the process of intracellular accumulation of iron without evidence of toxicity, whereas hemochromatosis is characterized by severe iron accumulation with accompanying organ damage. Iron storage disease (ISD) occurs when organ damage is severe and causing clinical signs. This retrospective study investigated the occurrence of hemosiderosis and ISD across a variety of avian taxa, including captive and free-ranging birds. Archived paraffin-embedded hepatic samples from 103 birds from Belo Horizonte Zoo that died naturally in the period of 2008 to 2018 were re-evaluated with histologic and morphometric techniques, focusing on the identification and scoring of iron deposits in hepatocytes and the quantification of total affected hepatic area. The birds represented 13 orders, 22 families, and 52 genera, and 66 (64.0%) had some degree of iron accumulation in their liver. Importantly, no statistical difference was observed in the occurrence of iron accumulation between families, orders, or origin (free-ranging or captive). Direct and positive correlation was observed between the total area affected by the iron deposits and the histologic score. In this study, there were two cases with severe iron accumulation and clinical signs compatible with ISD: a barefaced curassow (Crax fasciolata) and a channel-billed toucan (Ramphastos vitellinus). This study indicates that iron accumulation may occur in a wide range of avian species, with frequencies and intensities that are similar between free-ranging birds and those in human care. It describes for the first time the occurrence of ISD in a Galliform species.

PARASITOLOGIC AND PATHOLOGIC STUDY OF FREE-RANGING SOUTH AMERICAN RATTLESNAKES (CROTALUS DURISSUS TERRIFICUS) IN BRAZIL.

This study assesses parasitism and pathologic manifestations in free-ranging Crotalus durissus terrificus. A total of 96 rattlesnakes from the State of Minas Gerais (southeast Brazil) were necropsied between September 2019 and February 2020. Granulomatous gastritis affected 48% (46 of 96) of the snakes evaluated, which were associated with the ascaridid nematodes Ophidascaris sp. and Hexametra sp. Other nematodes found included Kalicephalus costatus costatus and Kalicephalus inermis inermis (Diaphanocephalidae; 7%, 7 of 96) in the intestines, Serpentirhabdias sp. (Rhabdiasidae; 18%, 17 of 96) in the lungs, and Hastospiculum sp. (Diplotriaenidae; 2%, 2 of 96) encapsulated in the serosa of the mesentery. Larval cestodes, probably spargana of Spirometra sp. (Diphyllobothriidae; 2%, 2 of 96), were found in the skeletal muscle and unidentified acanthocephalan cystacanths (Oligacanthorhynchidae; 5%, 5 of 96) in the subcutis and coelomic cavity. The pentastome Porocephalus crotali (Porocephalidae; 2%, 2 of 96) was also found in the lungs. Microscopically, intestinal disease was caused by Sarcocystis sp. (7%, 7 of 96), Cryptosporidium sp. (1%, 1 of 96), and Entamoeba sp. (1%, 1 of 96) and fungi (7%, 7 of 96). In addition, hemoparasites such as Hepatozoon spp. (23%, 22 of 96) and Trypanosoma sp. (1%, 1 of 96) were observed in blood smears. This study expands the knowledge of diseases, parasites, and other infectious agents affecting free-ranging C. durissus terrificus in Brazil.

ACUTE NECROTIZING AND EOSINOPHILIC MYOCARDITIS IN A CHIMPANZEE (PAN TROGLODYTES).

Cardiac disease is of importance in captive chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) health. Here we report an eosinophilic and necrotizing myocarditis in a 17-y-old chimpanzee with no previous history of cardiac disease that progressed to death within 48 h. Toxic and infectious causes were ruled out. The chimpanzee had eosinophilia at different occasions in previous years. The animal had a severe, diffuse, and acute monophasic necrotizing myocarditis, with a moderate lymphoplasmacytic infiltrate that was rich in eosinophils. Ante- and postmortem investigations are compatible with an unusual eosinophilic myocarditis with clinical evolution and morphology comparable with human eosinophilic myocarditis secondary to hypereosinophilic syndrome.

N-acetylcysteine reduces amphotericin B deoxycholate nephrotoxicity and improves the outcome of murine cryptococcosis.

Cryptococcosis is a life-threatening fungal infection, and its current treatment is toxic and subject to resistance. Drug repurposing represents an interesting approach to find drugs to reduce the toxicity of antifungals. In this study, we evaluated the combination of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) with amphotericin B (AMB) for the treatment of cryptococcosis. We examined the effects of NAC on fungal morphophysiology and on the macrophage fungicidal activity 3 and 24 hours post inoculation. The therapeutic effects of NAC combination with AMB were investigated in a murine model with daily treatments regimens. NAC alone reduced the oxidative burst generated by AMB in yeast cells, but did not inhibit fungal growth. The combination NAC + AMB decreased capsule size, zeta potential, superoxide dismutase activity and lipid peroxidation. In macrophage assays, NAC + AMB did not influence the phagocytosis, but induced fungal killing with different levels of oxidative bursts when compared to AMB alone: there was an increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) after 3 hours and reduced levels after 24 hours. By contrast, ROS remained elevated when AMB was tested alone, demonstrating that NAC reduced AMB oxidative effects without influencing its antifungal activity. Uninfected mice treated with NAC + AMB had lower concentrations of serum creatinine and glutamate-pyruvate transaminase in comparison to AMB. The combination of NAC + AMB was far better than AMB alone in increasing survival and reducing morbidity in murine-induced cryptococcosis, leading to reduced fungal burden in lungs and brain and also lower concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the lungs. In conclusion, NAC + AMB may represent an alternative adjuvant for the treatment of cryptococcosis.

Host range and susceptibility to Toxoplasma gondii infection in captive neotropical and Old-world primates.

BACKGROUND: Toxoplasmosis is an important disease affecting captive non-human primates. The goal of this study was to assess the seroprevalence and pathological findings of toxoplasmosis in different species of captive primates. METHODS: Six captive neotropical primates died naturally due to Toxoplasma gondii infection and were necropsied. Tissue samples were evaluated by histopathology and immunohistochemistry. Serum samples from 57 captive neotropical and Old-world primates housed at the Belo Horizonte zoological garden were analyzed by indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and indirect hemagglutination assay (IHA). RESULTS: Neotropical primates had lesions compatible with toxoplasmosis with immunolabeled intralesional T gondii. All Old-World primates (10/10), but only three neotropical primates (3/47), all belonging to the Sapajus apella species (3/6), were serologically positive. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest a higher susceptibility of neotropical primates to toxoplasmosis. However, this study also supports the hypothesis that Sapajus apella may be naturally resistant.

The candidate vaccine strain Brucella ovis ∆abcBA is protective against Brucella melitensis infection in mice.

Brucellosis is a major zoonotic disease, and Brucella melitensis is the species most often associated with human infection. Vaccination is the most efficient tool for controlling animal brucellosis, with a consequent decrease of incidence of human infections. Commercially available live attenuated vaccines provide some degree of protection, but retain residual pathogenicity to human and animals. In this study, Brucella ovis ∆abcBA (Bo∆abcBA), a live attenuated candidate vaccine strain, was tested in two formulations (encapsulated with alginate and alginate plus vitelline protein B [VpB]) to immunize mice against experimental challenge with B. melitensis strain 16M. One week after infection, livers and spleens of immunized mice had reduced numbers of the challenge strain B. melitensis 16M when compared with those of nonimmunized mice, with a reduction of approximately 1-log10 of B. melitensis 16M count in the spleens from immunized mice. Moreover, splenocytes stimulated with B. melitensis antigens in vitro secreted IFN-γ when mice had been immunized with Bo∆abcBA encapsulated with alginate plus VpB, but not with alginate alone. Body and liver weights were similar among groups, although spleens from mice immunized with Bo∆abcBA encapsulated with alginate were larger than those immunized with Bo∆abcBA encapsulated with alginate plus VpB or nonimmunized mice. This study demonstrated that two vaccine formulations containing Bo∆abcBA protected mice against experimental challenge with B. melitensis.

Histopathologic Patterns and Susceptibility of Neotropical Primates Naturally Infected With Yellow Fever Virus.

Yellow fever is an important zoonotic viral disease that can be fatal for both human and nonhuman primates. We evaluated histopathologic changes in free-ranging neotropical primates naturally infected with yellow fever virus (YFV) compared with uninfected cohorts. The most frequent lesions in primates infected with YFV were hepatic changes characterized by midzonal necrosis with lipidosis and mild inflammation including lymphocytes, macrophages, plasma cells, and infrequently neutrophils. Importantly, severe necrotizing hepatic lesions were often observed in Alouatta sp. (howler monkeys), whereas Callithrix sp. (common marmosets) had nearly no hepatic changes. Moderate to severe hepatic necrosis was present in 21/23 (91%) of the YFV-positive Alouatta sp. compared with 10/29 (34%) of the YFV-positive Callithrix sp. (P < .0001; odds ratio = 20). Similarly, hepatitis was more intense in Alouatta sp. compared with Callithrix sp. Furthermore, the frequency of YFV infection was significantly higher in Alouatta sp. compared with Callithrix sp. or Sapajus sp. (capuchin monkeys). Therefore, these data support the notion that Alouatta sp. is highly susceptible to infection and YFV-induced lesions, whereas Callithrix sp. is susceptible to infection but has a lower frequency of YFV-induced lesions.

Environmental Triazole Induces Cross-Resistance to Clinical Drugs and Affects Morphophysiology and Virulence of Cryptococcus gattii and C. neoformans.

Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans are environmental fungi that cause cryptococcosis, which is usually treated with amphotericin B and fluconazole. However, therapeutic failure is increasing because of the emergence of resistant strains. Because these species are constantly isolated from vegetal materials and the usage of agrochemicals is growing, we postulate that pesticides could be responsible for the altered susceptibility of these fungi to clinical drugs. Therefore, we evaluated the influence of the pesticide tebuconazole on the susceptibility to clinical drugs, morphophysiology, and virulence of C. gattii and C. neoformans strains. The results showed that tebuconazole exposure caused in vitro cross-resistance (CR) between the agrochemical and clinical azoles (fluconazole, itraconazole, and ravuconazole) but not with amphotericin B. In some strains, CR was observed even after the exposure ceased. Further, tebuconazole exposure changed the morphology, including formation of pseudohyphae in C. neoformans H99, and the surface charge of the cells. Although the virulence of both species previously exposed to tebuconazole was decreased in mice, the tebuconazole-exposed colonies recovered from the lungs were more resistant to azole drugs than the nonexposed cells. This in vivo CR was confirmed when fluconazole was not able to reduce the fungal burden in the lungs of mice. The tolerance to azoles could be due to increased expression of the ERG11 gene in both species and of efflux pump genes (AFR1 and MDR1) in C. neoformans Our study data support the idea that agrochemical usage can significantly affect human pathogens present in the environment by affecting their resistance to clinical drugs.

Hepatocellular carcinoma in two captive golden-headed lion tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelas).

Two cases of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in 2 female captive golden-headed lion tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelas) are described. HCC was diagnosed in both, with pulmonary metastasis in one of them. Neoplastic cells were positive for hepatocyte-specific antigen (HSA) by immunohistochemistry, confirming the diagnosis.

A subdose of fluconazole alters the virulence of Cryptococcus gattii during murine cryptococcosis and modulates type I interferon expression.

Cryptococcosis is an invasive infection caused by yeast-like fungus of the genera Cryptococcus spp. The antifungal therapy for this disease provides some toxicity and the incidence of infections caused by resistant strains increased. Thus, we aimed to assess the consequences of fluconazole subdoses during the treatment of cryptococcosis in the murine inflammatory response and in the virulence factors of Cryptococcus gattii. Mice infected with Cryptococcus gattii were treated with subdoses of fluconazole. We determined the behavior of mice and type 1 interferon expression during the treatment; we also studied the virulence factors and susceptibility to fluconazole for the colonies recovered from the animals. A subdose of fluconazole prolonged the survival of mice, but the morbidity of cryptococcosis was higher in treated animals. These data were linked to the increase in: (i) fluconazole minimum inhibitory concentration, (ii) capsule size and (iii) melanization of C. gattii, which probably led to the increased expression of type I interferons in the brains of mice but not in the lungs. In conclusion, a subdose of fluconazole altered fungal virulence factors and susceptibility to this azole, leading to an altered inflammatory host response and increased morbidity.

Detection of Brucella sp. infection through serological, microbiological, and molecular methods applied to buffaloes in Maranhão State, Brazil.

The aim of the current study is to diagnose Brucella spp. infection using methods such as serology, bacterial isolation, and molecular analysis in buffaloes bred in Maranhão State. In order to do so, 390 samples of buffalo serum were subjected to serological tests, to Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and to 2-mercaptoethanol (2-ME) combined with slow agglutination test (SAT). Vaginal swabs were collected from seropositive animals and subjected to bacterial isolation and to generic PCR. According to the serological test, 16 animals had a positive reaction to the confirmatory test (2-ME/SAT). As for bacterial isolation, three samples resulted in the isolation of Brucella spp.-characteristic colonies, which were confirmed through PCR. These results confirmed Brucella spp. infection in the buffalo herd from Maranhão State.

The absence of microbiota delays the inflammatory response to Cryptococcus gattii.

The inflammatory response plays a crucial role in infectious diseases, and the intestinal microbiota is linked to maturation of the immune system. However, the association between microbiota and the response against fungal infections has not been elucidated. Our aim was to evaluate the influence of microbiota on Cryptococcus gattii infection. Germ-free (GF), conventional (CV), conventionalized (CVN-mice that received feces from conventional animals), and LPS-stimulated mice were infected with C. gattii. GF mice were more susceptible to infection, showing lower survival, higher fungal burden in the lungs and brain, increased behavioral changes, reduced levels of IFN-γ, IL-1ß and IL-17, and lower NFκBp65 phosphorylation compared to CV mice. Low expression of inflammatory cytokines was associated with smaller yeast cells and polysaccharide capsules (the main virulence factor of C. gattii) in the lungs, and less tissue damage. Furthermore, macrophages from GF mice showed reduced ability to engulf, produce ROS, and kill C. gattii. Restoration of microbiota (CVN mice) or LPS administration made GF mice more responsive to infection, which was associated with increased survival and higher levels of inflammatory mediators. This study is the first to demonstrate the influence of microbiota in the host response against C. gattii.