In-depth analysis of isochorismate synthase-derived metabolism in plant immunity: identification of meta-substituted benzoates and salicyloyl-malate.

Isochorismate-derived metabolism enables biosynthesis of the plant defence hormone salicylic acid (SA) and its derivatives. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the stress-induced accumulation of SA depends on ISOCHORISMATE SYNTHASE1 (ICS1), and also requires the presumed isochorismate transporter ENHANCED DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY5 (EDS5) and the GH3 enzyme avrPphB SUSCEPTIBLE3 (PBS3). By comparative metabolite and structural analyses, we identified several hitherto unreported ICS1- and EDS5-dependent, biotic stress-inducible Arabidopsis metabolites. These involve meta-substituted SA derivatives (5-formyl-SA, 5-carboxy-SA, 5-carboxymethyl-SA), their benzoic acid (BA) analogues (3-formyl-BA, 3-carboxy-BA, 3-carboxymethyl-BA) and, besides the previously detected salicyloyl-aspartate (SA-Asp), the ester conjugate salicyloyl-malate (SA-Mal). SA functions as a biosynthetic precursor for SA-Mal and SA-Asp, but not for the meta-substituted SA- and BA-derivatives, which accumulate to moderate levels at later stages of bacterial infection. Interestingly, Arabidopsis leaves possess oxidising activity to effectively convert meta-formyl- into meta-carboxy-SA/BAs. In contrast to SA, exogenously applied meta-substituted SA/BA-derivatives and SA-Mal exert moderate impact on plant immunity and defence-related gene expression. While the isochorismate-derived metabolites are negatively regulated by the SA receptor NON-EXPRESSOR OF PR GENES1, SA conjugates (SA-Mal, SA-Asp, SA-glucose conjugates) and meta-substituted SA/BA-derivatives are oppositely affected by PBS3. Notably, our data indicate a PBS3-independent path to isochorismate-derived SA at later stages of bacterial infection, which does not considerably impact immune-related characteristics. Moreover, our results argue against a previously proposed role of EDS5 in the biosynthesis of the immune signal N-hydroxypipecolic acid and associated transport processes. We propose a significantly extended biochemical scheme of plant isochorismate metabolism that involves an alternative generation mode for benzoate- and salicylate-derivatives.

Structural details of amyloid ß oligomers in complex with human prion protein as revealed by solid-state MAS NMR spectroscopy.

Human PrP (huPrP) is a high-affinity receptor for oligomeric amyloid ß (Aß) protein aggregates. Binding of Aß oligomers to membrane-anchored huPrP has been suggested to trigger neurotoxic cell signaling in Alzheimer's disease, while an N-terminal soluble fragment of huPrP can sequester Aß oligomers and reduce their toxicity. Synthetic oligomeric Aß species are known to be heterogeneous, dynamic, and transient, rendering their structural investigation particularly challenging. Here, using huPrP to preserve Aß oligomers by coprecipitating them into large heteroassemblies, we investigated the conformations of Aß(1-42) oligomers and huPrP in the complex by solid-state MAS NMR spectroscopy. The disordered N-terminal region of huPrP becomes immobilized in the complex and therefore visible in dipolar spectra without adopting chemical shifts characteristic of a regular secondary structure. Most of the well-defined C-terminal part of huPrP is part of the rigid complex, and solid-state NMR spectra suggest a loss in regular secondary structure in the two C-terminal α-helices. For Aß(1-42) oligomers in complex with huPrP, secondary chemical shifts reveal substantial ß-strand content. Importantly, not all Aß(1-42) molecules within the complex have identical conformations. Comparison with the chemical shifts of synthetic Aß fibrils suggests that the Aß oligomer preparation represents a heterogeneous mixture of ß-strand-rich assemblies, of which some have the potential to evolve and elongate into different fibril polymorphs, reflecting a general propensity of Aß to adopt variable ß-strand-rich conformers. Taken together, our results reveal structural changes in huPrP upon binding to Aß oligomers that suggest a role of the C terminus of huPrP in cell signaling. Trapping Aß(1-42) oligomers by binding to huPrP has proved to be a useful tool for studying the structure of these highly heterogeneous ß-strand-rich assemblies.

A d-enantiomeric peptide interferes with heteroassociation of amyloid-ß oligomers and prion protein.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects millions of people worldwide. One AD hallmark is the aggregation of ß-amyloid (Aß) into soluble oligomers and insoluble fibrils. Several studies have reported that oligomers rather than fibrils are the most toxic species in AD progression. Aß oligomers bind with high affinity to membrane-associated prion protein (PrP), leading to toxic signaling across the cell membrane, which makes the Aß-PrP interaction an attractive therapeutic target. Here, probing this interaction in more detail, we found that both full-length, soluble human (hu) PrP(23-230) and huPrP(23-144), lacking the globular C-terminal domain, bind to Aß oligomers to form large complexes above the megadalton size range. Following purification by sucrose density-gradient ultracentrifugation, the Aß and huPrP contents in these heteroassemblies were quantified by reversed-phase HPLC. The Aß:PrP molar ratio in these assemblies exhibited some limited variation depending on the molar ratio of the initial mixture. Specifically, a molar ratio of about four Aß to one huPrP in the presence of an excess of huPrP(23-230) or huPrP(23-144) suggested that four Aß units are required to form one huPrP-binding site. Of note, an Aß-binding all-d-enantiomeric peptide, RD2D3, competed with huPrP for Aß oligomers and interfered with Aß-PrP heteroassembly in a concentration-dependent manner. Our results highlight the importance of multivalent epitopes on Aß oligomers for Aß-PrP interactions and have yielded an all-d-peptide-based, therapeutically promising agent that competes with PrP for these interactions.

Ligand-Induced Stabilization of the Native Human Superoxide Dismutase 1.

A common characteristic of familial (fALS) and sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (sALS) is the accumulation of aberrant proteinaceous species in the motor neurons and spinal cord of ALS patients-including aggregates of the human superoxide dismutase 1 (hSOD1). hSOD1 is an enzyme that occurs as a stable dimeric protein with several post-translational modifications such as the formation of an intramolecular disulfide bond and the acquisition of metal cofactors that are essential for enzyme activity and further contribute to protein stability. Some mutations and/or destabilizing factors promote hSOD1 misfolding, causing neuronal death. Aggregates containing misfolded wild-type hSOD1 have been found in the spinal cords of sALS as well as in non-hSOD1 fALS patients, leading to the hypothesis that hSOD1 misfolding is a common part of the ALS pathomechanism. Therefore, stabilizing the native conformation of SOD1 may be a promising approach to prevent the formation of toxic hSOD1 species and thus ALS pathogenesis. Here, we present the 16-mer peptide S1VL-21 that interferes with hSOD1 aggregation. S1VL-21 was identified by phage display selection with the native conformation of hSOD1 as a target. Several methods such as microscale thermophoresis (MST) measurements, aggregation assays, and cell viability assays revealed that S1VL-21 has a micromolar binding affinity to native hSOD1 and considerably reduces the formation of hSOD1 aggregates. This present work therefore provides the first important data on a potential lead compound for hSOD1-related drug development for ALS therapy.

Fibril structure of amyloid-ß(1-42) by cryo-electron microscopy.

Amyloids are implicated in neurodegenerative diseases. Fibrillar aggregates of the amyloid-ß protein (Aß) are the main component of the senile plaques found in brains of Alzheimer's disease patients. We present the structure of an Aß(1-42) fibril composed of two intertwined protofilaments determined by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) to 4.0-angstrom resolution, complemented by solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance experiments. The backbone of all 42 residues and nearly all side chains are well resolved in the EM density map, including the entire N terminus, which is part of the cross-ß structure resulting in an overall "LS"-shaped topology of individual subunits. The dimer interface protects the hydrophobic C termini from the solvent. The characteristic staggering of the nonplanar subunits results in markedly different fibril ends, termed "groove" and "ridge," leading to different binding pathways on both fibril ends, which has implications for fibril growth.

Detection of prion protein particles in blood plasma of scrapie infected sheep.

Prion diseases are transmissible neurodegenerative diseases affecting humans and animals. The agent of the disease is the prion consisting mainly, if not solely, of a misfolded and aggregated isoform of the host-encoded prion protein (PrP). Transmission of prions can occur naturally but also accidentally, e.g. by blood transfusion, which has raised serious concerns about blood product safety and emphasized the need for a reliable diagnostic test. In this report we present a method based on surface-FIDA (fluorescence intensity distribution analysis), that exploits the high state of molecular aggregation of PrP as an unequivocal diagnostic marker of the disease, and show that it can detect infection in blood. To prepare PrP aggregates from blood plasma we introduced a detergent and lipase treatment to separate PrP from blood lipophilic components. Prion protein aggregates were subsequently precipitated by phosphotungstic acid, immobilized on a glass surface by covalently bound capture antibodies, and finally labeled with fluorescent antibody probes. Individual PrP aggregates were visualized by laser scanning microscopy where signal intensity was proportional to aggregate size. After signal processing to remove the background from low fluorescence particles, fluorescence intensities of all remaining PrP particles were summed. We detected PrP aggregates in plasma samples from six out of ten scrapie-positive sheep with no false positives from uninfected sheep. Applying simultaneous intensity and size discrimination, ten out of ten samples from scrapie sheep could be differentiated from uninfected sheep. The implications for ante mortem diagnosis of prion diseases are discussed.