Do Not Waste Time─Ensure Success in Your Cross-Linking Mass Spectrometry Experiments before You Begin.

Cross-linking mass spectrometry (XL-MS) has become a very useful tool for studying protein complexes and interactions in living systems. It enables the investigation of many large and dynamic assemblies in their native state, providing an unbiased view of their protein interactions and restraints for integrative modeling. More researchers are turning toward trying XL-MS to probe their complexes of interest, especially in their native environments. However, due to the presence of other potentially higher abundant proteins, sufficient cross-links on a system of interest may not be reached to achieve satisfactory structural and interaction information. There are currently no rules for predicting whether XL-MS experiments are likely to work or not; in other words, if a protein complex of interest will lead to useful XL-MS data. Here, we show that a simple iBAQ (intensity-based absolute quantification) analysis performed from trypsin digest data can provide a good understanding of whether proteins of interest are abundant enough to achieve successful cross-linking data. Comparing our findings to large-scale data on diverse systems from several other groups, we show that proteins of interest should be at least in the top 20% abundance range to expect more than one cross-link found per protein. We foresee that this guideline is a good starting point for researchers who would like to use XL-MS to study their protein of interest and help ensure a successful cross-linking experiment from the beginning. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD045792.

Detoxification of V-Nerve Agents Assisted by a Microperoxidase: New Pathway Revealed by the Use of a Relevant VX Simulant.

The biocatalyzed oxidative detoxification of the V-series simulant PhX, by mean of the microperoxidase AcMP11, affords the corresponding phosphonothioate as the prominent product instead of the classical P-S and P-O bond cleavage. While PhX is structurally very close to the live agent VX (the methyl group is replaced by a phenyl), assessment with other surrogates missing the nucleophilic amino function displayed more resistance under the same conditions with no phosphonothioate observed. These encouraging results highlight 1) the efficacy of AcMP11 microperoxidase to efficiently detoxify V-series organophosphorus nerve agents (OPNA), and 2) the necessity to use representative alkyl or aryl phosphonothioates simulants such as PhX bearing the appropriate side chain as well as the P-O and P-S cleavable bond to mimic accurately the V-series OPNA to prevent false positive or false negative results.

A Photoredox Thiol-yne Reaction for the Synthesis of Vinyl Sulfide-Based Coumarins and its Effect on Fluorescence Properties.

Coumarins still remain one of the most widely explored fluorescent dyes, with a broad spectrum of applications spanning various fields, such as molecular imaging, bioorganic chemistry, materials chemistry, or medical sciences. Their fluorescence is strongly based on a push-pull mechanism involving an electron-donating group (EDG), mainly located at the C7 or C8 positions of the dye core. Unfortunately, up to now, these positions have been very limited to hydroxyl or amino groups. In this study, we present in detail the synthesis of the first series of coumarins bearing a vinyl sulfide as the EDG at the C7 position. These derivatives were prepared by thiol-yne reaction, promoted by ruthenium- or porphyrin-based photoredox catalysis, enabling rapid late-stage diversification. We also functionalized coumarins with short peptides, and BSA protein as a proof-of-concept study, in a single-step process. This strategy, capable of proceeding under aqueous conditions, overcomes the protection/deprotection steps usually required by traditional methods, which also use strong bases and organic solvents. Moreover, the photophysical properties such as absorption and emission of obtained coumarins (for 3-CF3, 3-benzothiazole, 6-8-difluoro derivatives), predominantly exhibited large Stokes shifts (up to 204 nm) and maintained intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) characteristics.

Metalloenzyme-Mediated Thiol-Yne Addition Towards Photoisomerizable Fluorescent Dyes.

Proteins are able to irreversibly assemble biologically active ligands from building blocks bearing complementary reactive functions due their spatial proximity, through a kinetic target-guided synthetic process (also named in situ click chemistry). Although linkages thus formed are mostly passive, some of them have shown to significantly contribute to the protein binding through for instance hydrogen bonding and stacking interactions. Biocompatible reactions and click chemistry are a formidable source of inspiration for developing such new protein-directed ligations. This study reports a proximity-induced thiol-yne synthesis of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Not only this example widens the arsenal of kinetic target-guided synthesis (KTGS) eligible reactions, but the obtained product displayed unsuspected photophysical properties. The corresponding vinyl sulfide linkage conjugated to a coumarin core proved to be engaged in a monodirectional Z to E photoisomerization process. Further investigations guided by theoretical calculations showed that fine-tuning of the nature of the substituents on the coumarin moiety allows to obtain a bidirectional photochemical process, thus discovering a new photoswitching moiety, displaying moreover fluorescence properties. Due to the spectral tunability of coumarin derivatives, this work should open new opportunities for the design of vinyl sulfide-based photoswitch systems with modular photophysical properties.

Tailored Bioorthogonal and Bioconjugate Chemistry: A Source of Inspiration for Developing Kinetic Target-Guided Synthesis Strategies.

Kinetic target-guided synthesis (KTGS) is a promising tool for the discovery of biologically active compounds. It relies on the identification of potent ligands that are covalently assembled by the biological targets themselves from a pool of reagents. Significant effort is devoted to developing new KTGS strategies; however, only a handful of biocompatible reactions are available, which may be insufficient to meet the specificities (stability, dynamics, active site topology, etc.) of a wide range of biological targets with therapeutic potential. This Topical Review proposes a retrospective analysis of existing KTGS ligation tools, in terms of their kinetics and analogy with other biocompatible reactions, and provides new clues to expand the KTGS toolkit. By way of examples, a nonexhaustive selection of such chemical ligation tools belonging to different classes of reactions as promising candidate reactions for KTGS are suggested.

Chromogranin A preferential interaction with Golgi phosphatidic acid induces membrane deformation and contributes to secretory granule biogenesis.

Chromogranin A (CgA) is a key luminal actor of secretory granule biogenesis at the trans-Golgi network (TGN) level but the molecular mechanisms involved remain obscure. Here, we investigated the possibility that CgA acts synergistically with specific membrane lipids to trigger secretory granule formation. We show that CgA preferentially interacts with the anionic glycerophospholipid phosphatidic acid (PA). In accordance, bioinformatic analysis predicted a PA-binding domain (PABD) in CgA sequence that effectively bound PA (36:1) or PA (40:6) in membrane models. We identified PA (36:1) and PA (40:6) as predominant species in Golgi and granule membranes of secretory cells, and we found that CgA interaction with these PA species promotes artificial membrane deformation and remodeling. Furthermore, we demonstrated that disruption of either CgA PABD or phospholipase D (PLD) activity significantly alters secretory granule formation in secretory cells. Our findings show for the first time the ability of CgA to interact with PLD-generated PA, which allows membrane remodeling and curvature, key processes necessary to initiate secretory granule budding.

Maleimide-based metal-free ligation with dienes: a comparative study.

A brief literature survey reveals that metal-free ligation such as the maleimide-based cycloaddition with electron-rich (hetero)dienes is a widespread tool for the assembly of (bio)molecular systems with applications in biotechnology, materials science, polymers and bio-organic chemistry. Despite their everyday use, only scattered data about their kinetics as well as the stabilities of corresponding products under physiological conditions, are accessible. These key parameters are yet, of paramount importance to ensure the rapid and effective preparation of stable compounds. Herein is reported a systematic study regarding the different classes of dienes used in chemoselective ligation, including their accessibility and stability, as well as comparative kinetic experiments and products stability assays. We took advantage of these data to develop a double labeling strategy from the combined use of cyclopentadiene and oxazole dienes.

Diverted Natural Lossen-type Rearrangement for Bioconjugation through in Situ Myrosinase-Triggered Isothiocyanate Synthesis.

Fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) is one of the most extensively used fluorescent probes for the labeling of biomolecules. The isothiocyanate function reacts with lysine residues of proteins to provide a chemically stable thiourea linkage without releasing any byproduct. However, diversification of isothiocyanate-based reagents is still hampered by the lack of mild conditions to generate isothiocyanate chemical functions, as well as by their poor stability and limited solutions available to increase water solubility, restricting the use of isothiocyanate labeling to highly water-soluble fluorophores. Inspired by plant biological processes, we report a safe and biocompatible myrosinase-assisted in situ formation of isothiocyanate conjugates from a highly water-soluble and stable glucosinolate precursor. This method was applied for the fluorescence labeling of a plasmatic protein and fluorescence imaging of living cells.

Investigation of tetrazine reactivity towards C-nucleophiles: pyrazolone-based modification of biomolecules.

Chemoselective, biocompatible ligation reactions are the key components for efficient and modular access to biomolecular scaffolds. Tetrazine ligation leads to the formation of a mixture of isomers, which makes reaction monitoring, purification and characterization of conjugates difficult. We report herein a modified tetrazine ligation strategy based on the use of a pyrazolone coupling partner, which provides a single molecule conjugate.

Real-time molecular optical micro-imaging of EGFR mutations using a fluorescent erlotinib based tracer.

BACKGROUND: EGFR mutations are routinely explored in lung adenocarcinoma by sequencing tumoral DNA. The aim of this study was to evaluate a fluorescent-labelled erlotinib based theranostic agent for the molecular imaging of mutated EGFR tumours in vitro and ex vivo using a mice xenograft model and fibred confocal fluorescence microscopy (FCFM). METHODS: The fluorescent tracer was synthesized in our laboratory by addition of fluorescein to an erlotinib molecule. Three human adenocarcinoma cell lines with mutated EGFR (HCC827, H1975 and H1650) and one with wild-type EGFR (A549) were xenografted on 35 Nude mice. MTT viability assay was performed after exposure to our tracer. In vitro imaging was performed at 1 µM tracer solution, and ex vivo imaging was performed on fresh tumours excised from mice and exposed to a 1 µM tracer solution in PBS for 1 h. Real-time molecular imaging was performed using FCFM and median fluorescence intensity (MFI) was recorded for each experiment. RESULTS: MTT viability assay confirmed that addition of fluorescein to erlotinib did not suppress the cytotoxic of erlotinib on tumoral cells. In vitro FCFM imaging showed that our tracer was able to distinguish cell lines with mutated EGFR from those lines with wild-type EGFR (p < 0.001). Ex vivo FCFM imaging of xenografts with mutated EGFR had a significantly higher MFI than wild-type (p < 0.001). At a cut-off value of 354 Arbitrary Units, MFI of our tracer had a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 96.3% for identifying mutated EGFR tumours. CONCLUSION: Real time molecular imaging using fluorescent erlotinib is able to identify ex vivo tumours with EGFR mutations.

Covalent Modification of Biomolecules through Maleimide-Based Labeling Strategies.

Since their first use in bioconjugation more than 50 years ago, maleimides have become privileged chemical partners for the site-selective modification of proteins via thio-Michael addition of biothiols and, to a lesser extent, via Diels-Alder (DA) reactions with biocompatible dienes. Prominent examples include immunotoxins and marketed maleimide-based antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) such as Adcetris, which are used in cancer therapies. Among the key factors in the success of these groups is the availability of several maleimides that can be N-functionalized by fluorophores, affinity tags, spin labels, and pharmacophores, as well as their unique reactivities in terms of selectivity and kinetics. However, maleimide conjugate reactions have long been considered irreversible, and only recently have systematic studies regarding their reversibility and stability toward hydrolysis been reported. This review provides an overview of the diverse applications for maleimides in bioconjugation, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses, which are being overcome by recent strategies. Finally, the fluorescence quenching ability of maleimides was leveraged for the preparation of fluorogenic probes, which are mainly used for the specific detection of thiol analytes. A summary of the reported structures, their photophysical features, and their relative efficiencies is discussed in the last part of the review.

Potent 3-Hydroxy-2-Pyridine Aldoxime Reactivators of Organophosphate-Inhibited Cholinesterases with Predicted Blood-Brain Barrier Penetration.

A new series of 3-hydroxy-2-pyridine aldoxime compounds have been designed, synthesised and tested in vitro, in silico, and ex vivo as reactivators of human acetylcholinesterase (hAChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (hBChE) inhibited by organophosphates (OPs), for example, VX, sarin, cyclosarin, tabun, and paraoxon. The reactivation rates of three oximes (16-18) were determined to be greater than that of 2-PAM and comparable to that of HI-6, two pyridinium aldoximes currently used by the armies of several countries. The interactions important for a productive orientation of the oxime group within the OP-inhibited enzyme have been clarified by molecular-modelling studies, and by the resolution of the crystal structure of the complex of oxime 17 with Torpedo californica AChE. Blood-brain barrier penetration was predicted for oximes 15-18 based on their physicochemical properties and an in vitro brain membrane permeation assay. Among the evaluated compounds, two morpholine-3-hydroxypyridine aldoxime conjugates proved to be promising reactivators of OP-inhibited cholinesterases. Moreover, efficient ex vivo reactivation of phosphylated native cholinesterases by selected oximes enabled significant hydrolysis of VX, sarin, paraoxon, and cyclosarin in whole human blood, which indicates that the oximes have scavenging potential.

Use of an Air-Stable Cu(I)-NHC Catalyst for the Synthesis of Peptidotriazoles.

We report the use of air-stable Cu(I)-NHC complex 4a as a catalyst for the efficient microwave-assisted synthesis of peptidotriazoles on solid phase. Compared with the usual conditions (CuI or CuSO4/NaAsc), catalyst 4a allowed the preparation of a series of peptidomimetic compounds containing a 1,2,3-triazole ring in their backbone without the oxidation of common side-chains. Overall, the peptidotriazoles were obtained in good yields (61-87%), in excellent purity (higher than 94%) and with low copper contamination.

Increasing Polarity in Tacrine and Huprine Derivatives: Potent Anticholinesterase Agents for the Treatment of Myasthenia Gravis.

Symptomatic treatment of myasthenia gravis is based on the use of peripherally-acting acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors that, in some cases, must be discontinued due to the occurrence of a number of side-effects. Thus, new AChE inhibitors are being developed and investigated for their potential use against this disease. Here, we have explored two alternative approaches to get access to peripherally-acting AChE inhibitors as new agents against myasthenia gravis, by structural modification of the brain permeable anti-Alzheimer AChE inhibitors tacrine, 6-chlorotacrine, and huprine Y. Both quaternization upon methylation of the quinoline nitrogen atom, and tethering of a triazole ring, with, in some cases, the additional incorporation of a polyphenol-like moiety, result in more polar compounds with higher inhibitory activity against human AChE (up to 190-fold) and butyrylcholinesterase (up to 40-fold) than pyridostigmine, the standard drug for symptomatic treatment of myasthenia gravis. The novel compounds are furthermore devoid of brain permeability, thereby emerging as interesting leads against myasthenia gravis.

On the Influence of the Protonation States of Active Site Residues on AChE Reactivation: A QM/MM Approach.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an enzyme of the serine hydrolase superfamily, is a mediator of signal transmission at cholinergic synapses by catalyzing acetylcholine cleavage into acetate and choline. This enzyme is vulnerable to covalent inhibition by organophosphate compounds (like VX). Covalent inhibition of AChE does not revert spontaneously. Known reactivator compounds have limited action in restoring catalytic activity. QM/MM simulations of VX-inhibited AChE reactivation by pralidoxime (2-PAM), a classical reactivator, were performed. These afforded a broad view of the effect of protonation states of active-site residues, and provide evidence for the role of Glu202, which needs to be protonated for reactivation to occur. In situ deprotonation of 2-PAM for both protonation states of Glu202 showed that His447 is able to deprotonate 2-PAM with the assistance of Glu202. Because the active site of serine hydrolases is highly conserved, this work provides new insights on the interplay between the catalytic triad residues and this glutamate, newly identified as protonatable.

A miniaturized peptidyl-prolyl isomerase enzyme assay.

Prolyl-peptidyl isomerases (PPIases) are enzymes that are found in all living organisms. They form an essential part of the cellular protein folding homeostasis machinery. PPIases are associated with many important human diseases, e.g. cardiovascular disease, cancer and Alzheimer's. The development of novel PPIase inhibitors has been limited by the lack of a rapid, laboratory-based assay for these enzymes, as their substrates and products are challenging to distinguish. A well described continuous assay, coupled with the hydrolysis of a peptide by chymotrypsin is highly effective, but comparatively slow. To address this, we developed an improved version of the traditional assay using a temperature controlled plate reader. This assay allows semi-automated medium throughput assays in an academic laboratory for 84 samples per day. The assay shows lower errors, with an average Z' of 0.72. We further developed the assay using a fluorogenic peptide-based FRET probe. This provides an extremely sensitive PPIase assay using substrate at 200 nM, which approaches single turnover conditions. The fluorescent probe achieves an excellent quenching efficiency of 98.6%, and initial experiments showed acceptable Z' of 0.31 and 0.30 for cyclophilin A and hFKBP12 respectively. The assays provide an improved toolset for the quantitative, biochemical analysis of PPIases.

Correction: Metal-free oxidative ring contraction of benzodiazepinones: an entry to quinoxalinones.

Correction for 'Metal-free oxidative ring contraction of benzodiazepinones: an entry to quinoxalinones' by Hasan Mtiraoui, et al., Org. Biomol. Chem., 2017, 15, 3060-3068.

Metal-free oxidative ring contraction of benzodiazepinones: an entry to quinoxalinones.

A novel and practical synthesis of 3-benzoylquinoxalin-2(1H)-ones from benzodiazepin-2-ones in two steps from commercially available starting materials is reported. The reaction was achieved in the presence of N-bromosuccinimide in DMSO which served both as a solvent and an oxidant. Significantly, the yet unknown ketone to alcohol fluorescence turn-on of benzoylquinoxalinones was unveiled through the preparation of a fluorescently labelled cholesterol conjugate.

W2476 ameliorates ß-cell dysfunction and exerts therapeutic effects in mouse models of diabetes via modulation of the thioredoxin-interacting protein signaling pathway.

Recent evidence shows that high glucose levels recruit carbohydrate response element-binding protein, which binds the promoter of thioredoxin-interacting protein (txnip), thereby regulating its expression in ß-cells. Overexpression of txnip not only induces ß-cell apoptosis but also reduces insulin production. Thus, the discovery of compounds that either inhibit TXNIP activity or suppress its expression was the focus of the present study. INS-1E cells stably transfected with either a txnip proximal glucose response element connected to a luciferase reporter plasmid (BG73) or full-length txnip promoter connected to a luciferase reporter plasmid (CL108) were used in primary and secondary high-throughput screening campaigns, respectively. From 256 000 synthetic compounds, a small molecule compound, W2476 [9-((1-(4-acetyl-phenyloxy)-ethyl)-2-)adenine], was identified as a modulator of the TXNIP-regulated signaling pathway following the screening and characterized using a battery of bioassays. The preventive and therapeutic properties of W2476 were further examined in streptozotocin-induced diabetic and diet-induced obese mice. Treatment with W2476 (1, 5, and 15 µmol/L) dose-dependently inhibited high glucose-induced TXNIP expression at the mRNA and protein levels in INS-1E cells and rat pancreatic islets. Furthermore, W2476 treatment prevented INS-1E cells from apoptosis induced by chronic exposure of high glucose and enhanced insulin production in vitro. Oral administration of W2476 (200 mg·kg-1·d-1) rescued streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice by promoting ß-cell survival and enhancing insulin secretion. This therapeutic property of W2476 was further demonstrated by its ability to improve glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity in diet-induced obese mice. Thus, chemical intervention of the TXNIP-regulated signaling pathway might present a viable approach to manage diabetes.

Fluorogenic Behaviour of the Hetero-Diels-Alder Ligation of 5-Alkoxyoxazoles with Maleimides and their Applications.

Fluorogenic reactions are largely underrepresented in the toolbox of chemoselective ligations despite their tremendous potential, particularly in chemical biology and biochemistry. In this respect, we have investigated in full detail the fluorescence behaviour of the azaphthalamide, a scaffold which is generated through a hetero-Diels-Alder reaction of 5-alkoxyoxazole and maleimide derivatives under mild conditions that are compatible with, among others, peptide chemistry. The scope and limitations of such a fluorogenic labelling strategy were examined through four distinct applications, which target enzymatic activities or bioorthogonal reactions.