Substance use and symptomatology among adolescent children of alcoholics.

This study assessed the magnitude and specificity of parental alcoholism as a risk factor for internalizing symptomatology, externalizing symptomatology, and alcohol and drug use in adolescence. We evaluated parents' and children's reports of symptomatology and children's reports of alcohol and drug use in a community sample of 454 adolescents. The results showed that parental alcoholism was a moderate to strong risk factor, with stronger risk associated with recent (rather than remitted) parental alcoholism. Multivariate analyses showed that the specificity of risk varied with the outcome measure. In predicting externalizing symptomatology, the risk associated with parental alcoholism was mediated by co-occurring parental psychopathology and environmental stress. However, in predicting alcohol use, the father's alcoholism was a specific risk factor above and beyond the more generalized effects of stress and family disruption.

Effects of social support and conflict on adolescent children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic fathers.

Studies of positive and negative social ties usually are done in isolation of each other, precluding an understanding of their relative contributions to psychological functioning. This research evaluated the effects of adolescents' conflict with and social support from key relationships (parents, siblings, and best friends) on adolescents' self-esteem, substance use, and externalizing symptoms. Ss were 296 adolescents and their parents; 145 families had alcoholic fathers, and 151 had nonalcoholic parents. Support and conflict provided by each network member showed only a mild negative correlation. Support from parents, but not siblings or best friends, was related to adolescents' reports of substance use and externalizing. Conflict with parents was consistently related to externalizing behaviors. There was no evidence that conflict within a relationship neutralizes the effectiveness of the support it provides.

Effect of maltreatment on preschoolers' narrative representations of responses to relieve distress and of role reversal.

A total of 80 low-socioeconomic status maltreated preschoolers were contrasted with 27 nonmaltreated preschoolers on their narrative representations. The children completed story stems, taken from the MacArthur Story-Stem Battery (MSSB; I. Bretherton, D. Oppenheim, H. Buchsbaum, R. N. Emde, & the MacArthur Narrative Group, 1990), that introduced stressful family situations. Using the MacArthur narrative coding manual (J. Robinson, L. Mantz-Simmons, J. Macfie, & the MacArthur Narrative Group, 1992), coders rated portrayals of parental and child character responses, as well as participant responses, to relieve children's distress. They also rated role reversal (children caretaking their parents) from the narrative emotion coding manual (S. L. Warren, L. Mantz-Simmons, & R. N. Emde, 1993). Maltreated preschoolers portrayed parents and children as responding less often--yet themselves as stepping into the story more often to relieve children's distress--than did nonmaltreated preschoolers. Abused children (sexually, physically, or both) portrayed the most participant responses, and neglected children (with no abuse) portrayed the fewest child responses. Role reversal was associated with physical abuse.

Personality variables as mediators and moderators of family history risk for alcoholism: conceptual and methodological issues.

Recently there has been great interest in possible mediators and moderators of family history risk for alcoholism. However, previous studies have failed to employ appropriate designs and data analytic strategies to identify moderators and mediators. This article uses a large data set to illustrate such analyses. In the current data, both presumed personality risk and dispositional self-awareness were found to play moderator (rather than mediator) roles. The conceptual, methodological and data analytic implications of the mediator-moderator distinction are discussed.

The efficacy of toddler-parent psychotherapy for fostering cognitive development in offspring of depressed mothers.

The efficacy of Toddler-Parent Psychotherapy (TPP) as a preventive intervention for fostering cognitive development in the offspring of depressed mothers was evaluated. Mothers with major depressive disorder and their toddlers were randomly assigned to TPP (n = 43) or to a nonintervention group (n = 54) and compared to a control group (n = 61) of women with no current or past mental disorder. At baseline (age 20 months), the groups did not differ on the Bayley Mental Development Index. At post-intervention follow-up (age 3 years), a relative decline in IQ was found in the depressed nonintervention group, whereas the depressed intervention and the normal control groups continued to be equivalent, with higher WPPSI-R Full Scale and Verbal IQs. The worst outcome was found among nonintervention children whose mothers had subsequent depressive episodes. The results confirm the developmental risks faced by offspring of depressed mothers and support the efficacy of the preventive intervention in safeguarding successful cognitive development in at-risk youngsters.

Affective, organizational, and relational characteristics of maltreating families: a systems perspective.

In-home structured interactions of 42 maltreating families (neglect: n = 12; physical abuse: n = 19; sexual abuse: n = 11) and 23 low-income comparison families with preschool-aged children were examined to determine whether maltreating and nonmaltreating families could be distinguished by system-level processes. Coding from videotapes of family interactions yielded ratings for affective, organizational, and relational features of each family unit. Results from family coding demonstrated that sexually abusive families had significantly more difficulties regulating anger, evidenced more chaos and less role clarity, and relied less on adaptive-flexible relationship strategies than nonmaltreating families. The importance of family climate and structure, above and beyond individual maltreatment acts, are high-lighted. Treatment and social policy implications and directions for future research in the family study of child maltreatment are discussed.

The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning.

Cortisol regulation was investigated in a sample of school-aged maltreated (n = 167) and demographically comparable low-income nonmaltreated (n = 204) boys and girls in the context of a day camp research program. The presence of clinical-level internalizing and clinical-level externalizing symptomatology was determined through adult report and child self report. Children who exhibited clinical-level internalizing problems only, clinical-level externalizing problems only, and comorbid clinical-level internalizing and extemalizing problems were identified. Clinical-level cases were more prevalent among the maltreated children. Maltreated children with clinical-level internalizing problems were distinguished by higher morning, afternoon, and average daily cortisol levels across the week of camp attendance. In contrast, nonmaltreated boys with clinical-level externalizing problems emerged as distinct in terms of low levels of morning and average daily levels of cortisol. Maltreated children with comorbid clinical-level internalizing and externalizing problems were more likely not to show the expected diumal decrease in cortisol. The findings are discussed in terms of the joint impact of maltreatment and different forms of psychopathology on neuroendocrine regulation.

The role of self-organization in the promotion of resilience in maltreated children.

The dynamic nature of resilience necessitates that children from high-risk backgrounds who are functioning adaptively despite experiences of adversity must be examined over time. In the current investigation, the adaptation of school-age maltreated and nonmaltreated socioeconomically disadvantaged children was examined over 3 consecutive years. In accord with predictions, a higher percentage of nonmaltreated children than of maltreated children were found to be resilient. Moreover, a higher percentage of maltreated than of nonmaltreated children were shown to exhibit functioning consistently in the low adaptive range. Differential predictors of resilience were found in maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Specifically, for maltreated children, positive self-esteem, ego resilience, and ego overcontrol predicted resilient functioning, whereas relationship features were more influential for nonmaltreated children. These findings are discussed in relation to the unfolding of resilient self-organizational strivings in maltreated and nonmaltreated children.

Diverse patterns of neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children.

Cortisol regulation was investigated in a sample of school-aged maltreated (n = 175) and demographically comparable low-income nonmaltreated (n = 209) children in the context of a day camp research program. Overall group differences between maltreated and nonmaltreated children were not found for average morning or average afternoon cortisol levels. However, significant variations were found that were based on the subtypes of maltreatment that the children had experienced. Maltreated children who had been both physically and sexually abused (as well as neglected or emotionally maltreated) exhibited substantial elevations in morning cortisol levels; children who had high (>1 SD) cortisol levels in both the morning and afternoon were also overrepresented in the multiple abuse group. Developmental timing of maltreatment did not account for these group differences, whereas the severity of sexual abuse was implicated. In contrast to the multiple abuse group, a subgroup of physically abused children showed evidence of a trend toward lower morning cortisol relative to nonmaltreated children with a significantly smaller decrease in cortisol levels from morning to afternoon. The findings are discussed in terms of the diversity of atypical cortisol regulation patterns that are exhibited among maltreated children.

Psychopathology as risk for adolescent substance use disorders: a developmental psychopathology perspective.

Examines several issues on psychiatric diagnoses as risk factors for adolescent drug use and substance use disorders. The articles in this special section are discussed in terms of dynamic models of risk and protective factors, stages of research needed for establishing causal mechanisms in the etiology of drug use disorders, conceptualizing drug use and abuse in the context of the developmental organization of the individual, equifinality and multifinality in developmental pathways to drug use and abuse, and issues in conceptualizing drug use problems as mental disorders. Future directions for research on the etiology of problem drug use, guided by principles of developmental psychopathology and prevention science, are provided.

Children's perceptions of peer reputations and their social reputations among peers.

The influence of social and cognitive developmental processes on the construction of social reputation was assessed by having first-, third-, and fifth-grade (mean age of 7-0, 8-11, and 10-11, respectively) boys and girls (N = 182), identified as to sociometric status, provide free descriptions of their classmates. These descriptions were aggregated by subject (descriptions made by a child) and by target (descriptions made about a child). Discriminant analyses revealed that rejected children were segregated from their peers by negative attitudes and peer ostracism; this social reputation was more distinct for older rejected children than younger rejected children. In contrast, neglected children were perceived in less distinctive reputational terms but, unlike rejected children, were notable for perceiving peers differently. Older children were more likely than younger children to describe the reputations of their peers with complex trait concepts. Sex differences included the following: rejected boys were perceived as having characteristics polar opposite to accepted qualities for girls, whereas rejected girls were perceived as having characteristics polar opposite to acceptable qualities for boys. The social implications of cognitive developmental change and the developmental implications of social differentiation among peers were discussed.

The efficacy of toddler-parent psychotherapy to increase attachment security in offspring of depressed mothers.

The efficacy of toddler-parent psychotherapy (TPP) as a preventive intervention for promoting secure attachment in the offspring of depressed mothers was evaluated, 63 mothers with major depressive disorder being randomly assigned to TPP (n = 27) or to a no treatment group (n = 36) and compared with a control group (n = 45) of women with no current or past mental disorder. At baseline, comparable and higher rates of attachment insecurity were found in the two depressed offspring groups as compared with the non-depressed control group. At the post-treatment follow-up, offspring in the intervention group attained rates of secure attachment that were comparable with those of youngsters in the non-depressed control group. In contrast, the children in the depressed control group continued to demonstrate a greater rate of attachment insecurity than children in the non-depressed control group. The findings support the efficacy of an attachment-theory based model of intervention for fostering developmental competence in the offspring of depressed mothers.

Maternal depressive disorder and contextual risk: contributions to the development of attachment insecurity and behavior problems in toddlerhood.

Research has shown that offspring of depressed caregivers are at increased risk for maladaptive development and emotional difficulties. Specifically, infants and toddlers of depressed mothers have been shown to evidence higher percentages of insecure attachments and more behavioral difficulties than offspring of nondisordered mothers. However, even in studies that reveal significant differences between children of depressed and nondepressed caregivers, a substantial number of children with depressed caregivers do not evidence dysfunction. Such findings have resulted in increased attention to the broader social context in which children of depressed mothers develop. This investigation examined the direct influences of maternal depression on child development, as well as the role of contextual risks that may be particularly heightened in families with depressed parents. Toddlers with depressed mothers evidenced significantly more insecure attachments than did toddlers with nondisordered mothers, and this difference was not accounted for by contextual risk. In predicting child behavior problems, contextual risk was found to mediate the relation between maternal depression and child behavior problems. Father-report data on child behavior corroborated the mother report data. Results are discussed in terms of the diversity of functioning in offspring of depressed caregivers that can be attributed to varied levels of contextual risk accompanying depression.

Child compliance/noncompliance and maternal contributors to internalization in maltreating and nonmaltreating dyads.

Moral development in maltreated and nonmaltreated children was examined by coding child compliance and noncompliance behaviors in a mother-child interaction during a cleanup situation that followed a semistructured free play. Features of child compliance/noncompliance involve a shift from reliance on external controls to internal mechanisms, thereby reflecting child internalization of the maternal agenda. Differences in maltreating versus comparison mothers' use of control strategies (power-assertive and inductive techniques) and their relations to child internalization were examined. Eighty-nine mother-child dyads participated; approximately half of the children (n = 46) had documented histories of maltreatment and the remaining children (n = 43) were nonmaltreated, demographically similar comparison children. Maltreated children were divided into two subgroups: physically abused and neglected. Compared with nonmaltreated children, abused children were found to exhibit less internalization, whereas neglected children displayed significantly more negative affect. No differences were found between groups for the maternal control strategies. However, maltreated and nonmaltreated groups differed in the maternal variables that predicted child internalization. A lower level of maternal negative affect was linked to child internalization in maltreated children, whereas a lower level of maternal joy predicted internalization for the comparison children. The findings suggest that maltreated children exhibit both behavioral and affective differences in their moral development, with differential effects based on the type of maltreatment. The clinical implications for maltreated children's self and moral development are discussed.

Peer relationships and adjustment in children with cancer.

Evaluated the psychosocial adaptations of children with cancer (n = 24, ages 8-18) as compared with same classroom controls on indices of (a) peer- and self-perceptions of sociability, aggression, and social isolation; (b) overall popularity; (c) mutual friendships; (d) feelings of loneliness; and (e) self-concept in multiple domains. Although the peer report data showed that children with cancer had a social reputation as significantly more socially isolated, no significant differences were found for their popularity, number of mutual friends, loneliness, or self-worth. Findings suggest that children with cancer have a reputation as more socially isolated, but differences were not found on measures of acceptance by peers, self-concept, or loneliness.

Differentiating specialists and generalists within college students' social support networks.

In order to examine the relationships among social network structure, types of social support, and determinants of support satisfaction, an alternative method was used to score the Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ). Factor analysis procedures suggested that college students' (N=198) social networks consisted of four groups: nuclear family, other family, friends, and others. Satisfaction with support was positively related to the proportion of the network occupied by nuclear family and negatively related to the proportion of friends in the network. Evidence was found for the presence of both support specialists and support generalists in the networks of the college students. These results are discussed from a developmental perspective with attention to the implications for interventions.

Dimensions of child maltreatment and children's adjustment: contributions of developmental timing and subtype.

This investigation examined the dimensions of developmental timing, subtype, and severity of maltreatment and their relations with child adaptation. The 814 children who participated in a summer day camp, 492 of whom were maltreated and 322 of whom were nonmaltreated comparison children, were assessed by camp counselors on their internalizing and externalizing symptomatology, aggressive, withdrawn, and cooperative behavior, and on personality dimensions of ego resiliency and ego control, and were rated by peers on disruptive, aggressive, and cooperative behavior. The severity within each subtype of maltreatment and the developmental period in which each subtype occurred were examined through hierarchical regression analyses. Additionally, children with similar timing or subtype patterns were grouped to explore diversity in outcomes. Results highlighted the role of severity of emotional maltreatment in the infancy-toddlerhood period and physical abuse during the preschool period in predicting externalizing behavior and aggression. Severity of physical neglect, particularly when it occurred during the preschool period, was associated with internalizing symptomatology and withdrawn behavior. Additionally, maltreatment during the school-age period contributed significant variance after earlier maltreatment was controlled. Chronic maltreatment, especially with onset during infancy-toddlerhood or preschool periods, was linked with more maladaptive outcomes. The implications of measuring multiple dimensions for improving research in child maltreatment are discussed.

Affect, cognition, and the emergence of self-knowledge in the toddler offspring of depressed mothers.

Visual self-recognition was examined utilizing the mirror-rouge paradigm in a sample of 18- to 21-month-old toddlers of depressed (n = 91) and nondepressed (n = 43) mothers in regard to linkages with cognitive and affective development. Overall, attainment of self-recognition was not related to differences in level of cognitive development, pre-rouge affective expression, or maternal depression. However, children of depressed mothers who exhibited self-recognition were more likely than children of nondepressed mothers to display nonpositive affect and to shift affect from positive to nonpositive in the post-rouge condition. Within the group of children of depressed mothers, toddlers who did not evidence self-recognition and who shifted affect were lower in attachment security and had mothers with less positive affect characteristics. Also, self-recognition and affective instability were related to differences in cognitive developmental level among toddlers of depressed mothers. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for understanding the relations between affect and cognition and the influence of maternal depression on affective and cognitive development.

Social interactions between children with cancer and their peers: teacher ratings.

Compared children (ages 8-18) with cancer (n = 24) and matched classroom control children (n = 24) using a modified version of the Revised Class Play (RCP). A wide variety of malignancies were represented, except brain tumors. Childrens' classroom teachers completed the RCP, an instrument modified to obtain teachers' impressions of three fundamental dimensions of interpersonal style: sociability-leadership, aggressive-disruptive, sensitive-isolated. Relative to the matched controls, children with cancer were perceived by teachers as (a) less sociable and prone towards leadership and (b) more socially isolated and withdrawn. These findings suggest a need for long-term psychosocial interventions oriented towards peer relationships of children with cancer.

Narrative representations of moral-affiliative and conflictual themes and behavioral problems in maltreated preschoolers.

Examined whether maltreated preschoolers are more likely than nonmaltreated preschoolers to have fewer moral-affiliative and more conflictual narrative representations and whether these representations mediate child behavior problems. A structured narrative story-telling task was administered to assess representations, and independent ratings of behavior problems were obtained from teachers. The narratives of maltreated children contained more conflictual and fewer moral-affiliative themes. Maltreated children also exhibited more internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. A partial mediation effect of conflictual representations on the relation between child maltreatment and externalizing behavior problems was found. The results demonstrate the relation between child maltreatment and children's organization of their life experiences and their behavioral symptomatology.