Multiple Mechanisms Mapped in Aryl Alkyl Ether Cleavage via Aqueous Electrocatalytic Hydrogenation over Skeletal Nickel.

We present here detailed mechanistic studies of electrocatalytic hydrogenation (ECH) in aqueous solution over skeletal nickel cathodes to probe the various paths of reductive catalytic C-O bond cleavage among functionalized aryl ethers relevant to energy science. Heterogeneous catalytic hydrogenolysis of aryl ethers is important both in hydrodeoxygenation of fossil fuels and in upgrading of lignin from biomass. The presence or absence of simple functionalities such as carbonyl, hydroxyl, methyl, or methoxyl groups is known to cause dramatic shifts in reactivity and cleavage selectivity between sp3 C-O and sp2 C-O bonds. Specifically, reported hydrogenolysis studies with Ni and other catalysts have hinted at different cleavage mechanisms for the C-O ether bonds in α-keto and α-hydroxy ß-O-4 type aryl ether linkages of lignin. Our new rate, selectivity, and isotopic labeling results from ECH reactions confirm that these aryl ethers undergo C-O cleavage via distinct paths. For the simple 2-phenoxy-1-phenylethane or its alcohol congener, 2-phenoxy-1-phenylethanol, the benzylic site is activated via Ni C-H insertion, followed by beta elimination of the phenoxide leaving group. But in the case of the ketone, 2-phenoxyacetophenone, the polarized carbonyl π system apparently binds directly with the electron rich Ni cathode surface without breaking the aromaticity of the neighboring phenyl ring, leading to rapid cleavage. Substituent steric and electronic perturbations across a broad range of ß-O-4 type ethers create a hierarchy of cleavage rates that supports these mechanistic ideas while offering guidance to allow rational design of the catalytic method. On the basis of the new insights, the usage of cosolvent acetone is shown to enable control of product selectivity.

Technoeconomic Analysis for Biodegradable and Recyclable Paper Coated with Synthetic Ionic PBAT for Packaging Application.

This study presents a technoeconomic analysis (TEA) for a novel ionic polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT), CPBAT, as a paper coating material, showcasing excellent water and oil resistance. This TEA determined total capital investment, operating costs, and minimum selling prices for a production capacity of 1,000 kg of CPBAT per day. The minimum selling prices of CPBAT coated on Kraft paper (CPBAT-K) and CPABT coated on starch-coated Kraft paper (CPBAT-S) are estimated to be $1.327/m2 and $1.864/m2, respectively. Additionally, the results of a sensitivity analysis show that the production of CPBAT-K and CPBAT-S is highly sensitive to the production capacity, raw material costs, energy efficiency of the coating process, reaction energy, and reaction yield. Recovery of the ionization solvent only marginally increases the selling prices of CPBAT-K and CPBAT-S, and hence, it is highly favorable. By increasing production capacity, lowering raw material costs, using energy-efficient coating machines, and partially recovering energy from reactions, the prices of CPBAT-K and CPBAT-S can be reduced to $0.588/m2 and $0.914/m2, respectively. Given that commercial polyethylene-coated paper prices range from $0.94/m2 to $1.850/m2, CPBAT-based coated papers with comparable mechanical and barrier properties along with biodegradability and recyclability are positioned as highly competitive and sustainable alternatives in the market.

Skeletal Ni electrode-catalyzed C-O cleavage of diaryl ethers entails direct elimination via benzyne intermediates.

Diaryl ethers undergo electrocatalytic hydrogenolysis (ECH) over skeletal Ni cathodes in a mild, aqueous process that achieves direct C-O cleavage without initial benzene ring saturation. Mechanistic studies find that aryl phenyl ethers with a single para or meta functional group (methyl, methoxy, or hydroxy) are selectively cleaved to the substituted benzene and phenol, in contrast to recently reported homogeneous catalytic cleavage processes. Ortho positioning of substituents reverses this C-O bond selectivity, except for the 2-phenoxyphenol case. Together with isotope labeling and co-solvent studies, these results point to two distinct cleavage mechanisms: (a) dual-ring coordination and C-H activation, leading to vicinal elimination to form phenol and a surface-bound aryne intermediate which is then hydrogenated and released as the arene; and (b) surface binding in keto form by the phenolic ring of the hydroxy-substituted substrates, followed by direct displacement of the departing phenol. Notably, acetone inhibits the well-known reduction of phenol to cyclohexanol, affording control of product ring saturation. A byproduct of this work is the discovery that the ECH treatment completely defluorinates substrates bearing aromatic C-F and C-CF3 groupings.

Greener Routes to Biomass Waste Valorization: Lignin Transformation Through Electrocatalysis for Renewable Chemicals and Fuels Production.

Lignin valorization is essential for biorefineries to produce fuels and chemicals for a sustainable future. Today's biorefineries pursue profitable value propositions for cellulose and hemicellulose; however, lignin is typically used mainly for its thermal energy value. To enhance the profit potential for biorefineries, lignin valorization would be a necessary practice. Lignin valorization is greatly advantaged when biomass carbon is retained in the fuel and chemical products and when energy quality is enhanced by electrochemical upgrading. Though lignin upgrading and valorization are very desirable in principle, many barriers involved in lignin pretreatment, extraction, and depolymerization must be overcome to unlock its full potential. This Review addresses the electrochemical transformation of various lignins with the aim of gaining a better understanding of many of the barriers that currently exist in such technologies. These studies give insight into electrochemical lignin depolymerization and upgrading to value-added commodities with the end goal of achieving a global low-carbon circular economy.

Integrated experimental and technoeconomic evaluation of two-stage Cu-catalyzed alkaline-oxidative pretreatment of hybrid poplar.

BACKGROUND: When applied to recalcitrant lignocellulosic feedstocks, multi-stage pretreatments can provide more processing flexibility to optimize or balance process outcomes such as increasing delignification, preserving hemicellulose, and maximizing enzymatic hydrolysis yields. We previously reported that adding an alkaline pre-extraction step to a copper-catalyzed alkaline hydrogen peroxide (Cu-AHP) pretreatment process resulted in improved sugar yields, but the process still utilized relatively high chemical inputs (catalyst and H2O2) and enzyme loadings. We hypothesized that by increasing the temperature of the alkaline pre-extraction step in water or ethanol, we could reduce the inputs required during Cu-AHP pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis without significant loss in sugar yield. We also performed technoeconomic analysis to determine if ethanol or water was the more cost-effective solvent during alkaline pre-extraction and if the expense associated with increasing the temperature was economically justified. RESULTS: After Cu-AHP pretreatment of 120 °C NaOH-H2O pre-extracted and 120 °C NaOH-EtOH pre-extracted biomass, approximately 1.4-fold more total lignin was solubilized (78% and 74%, respectively) compared to the 30 °C NaOH-H2O pre-extraction (55%) carried out in a previous study. Consequently, increasing the temperature of the alkaline pre-extraction step to 120 °C in both ethanol and water allowed us to decrease bipyridine and H2O2 during Cu-AHP and enzymes during hydrolysis with only a small reduction in sugar yields compared to 30 °C alkaline pre-extraction. Technoeconomic analysis indicated that 120 °C NaOH-H2O pre-extraction has the lowest installed ($246 million) and raw material ($175 million) costs compared to the other process configurations. CONCLUSIONS: We found that by increasing the temperature of the alkaline pre-extraction step, we could successfully lower the inputs for pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis. Based on sugar yields as well as capital, feedstock, and operating costs, 120 °C NaOH-H2O pre-extraction was superior to both 120 °C NaOH-EtOH and 30 °C NaOH-H2O pre-extraction.

Integration of decentralized torrefaction with centralized catalytic pyrolysis to produce green aromatics from coffee grounds.

The aim of this work was to integrate decentralized torrefaction with centralized catalytic pyrolysis to convert coffee grounds into the green aromatic precursors of terephthalic acid, namely benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX). An economic analysis of this bioproduct system was conducted to examine BTEX yields, biomass costs and their sensitivities. Model predictions were verified experimentally using pyrolysis GC/MS to quantify BTEX yields for raw and torrefied biomass. The production cost was minimized when the torrefier temperature and residence time were 239°C and 34min, respectively. This optimization study found conditions that justify torrefaction as a pretreatment for making BTEX, provided that starting feedstock costs are below $58 per tonne.

Structural characterization of alkaline hydrogen peroxide pretreated grasses exhibiting diverse lignin phenotypes.

BACKGROUND: For cellulosic biofuels processes, suitable characterization of the lignin remaining within the cell wall and correlation of quantified properties of lignin to cell wall polysaccharide enzymatic deconstruction is underrepresented in the literature. This is particularly true for grasses which represent a number of promising bioenergy feedstocks where quantification of grass lignins is particularly problematic due to the high fraction of p-hydroxycinnamates. The main focus of this work is to use grasses with a diverse range of lignin properties, and applying multiple lignin characterization platforms, attempt to correlate the differences in these lignin properties to the susceptibility to alkaline hydrogen peroxide (AHP) pretreatment and subsequent enzymatic deconstruction. RESULTS: We were able to determine that the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose to to glucose (i.e. digestibility) of four grasses with relatively diverse lignin phenotypes could be correlated to total lignin content and the content of p-hydroxycinnamates, while S/G ratios did not appear to contribute to the enzymatic digestibility or delignification. The lignins of the brown midrib corn stovers tested were significantly more condensed than a typical commercial corn stover and a significant finding was that pretreatment with alkaline hydrogen peroxide increases the fraction of lignins involved in condensed linkages from 88-95% to ~99% for all the corn stovers tested, which is much more than has been reported in the literature for other pretreatments. This indicates significant scission of ß-O-4 bonds by pretreatment and/or induction of lignin condensation reactions. The S/G ratios in grasses determined by analytical pyrolysis are significantly lower than values obtained using either thioacidolysis or 2DHSQC NMR due to presumed interference by ferulates. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that grass cell wall polysaccharide hydrolysis by cellulolytic enzymes for grasses exhibiting a diversity of lignin structures and compositions could be linked to quantifiable changes in the composition of the cell wall and properties of the lignin including apparent content of the p-hydroxycinnamates while the limitations of S/G estimation in grasses is highlighted.

Kinetics of contaminant desorption from soil: comparison of model formulations using the Akaike information criterion.

Desorption of organic contaminants from soil can be modeled by dividing the desorption time-concentration profile into three distinct regimes. These are characterized by desorption that occurs faster than the experimental sampling scheme, at a rate that is captured by it, and at a rate for which the duration of the experiment and data uncertainty obscures the rate. Batch desorption curves for atrazine and naphthalene on four soils were experimentally generated to demonstrate the existence of discrete observational desorption regimes. Nine mathematical models, each containing mechanisms formulated to describe at least one of the three regimes, were fit to each contaminant-soil combination using the Gauss-Newton method for parameter estimation. Each of the nine models was ranked using the small-sample-corrected Akaike information criterion (AICc). By interpretation of the AICc values, the atrazine desorption data were best described by three regimes, while the naphthalene desorption data were best described by two regimes. Furthermore, for a given number of regimes, we could find no general basis to suggest that a particular type of rate model (chemical, physical, kinetic, or statistical) is intrinsically superior over another.