Targeted disruption of the inosine 5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase type I gene in mice.

Inosine 5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) is the critical, rate-limiting enzyme in the de novo biosynthesis pathway for guanine nucleotides. Two separate isoenzymes, designated IMPDH types I and II, contribute to IMPDH activity. An additional pathway salvages guanine through the activity of hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) to supply the cell with guanine nucleotides. In order to better understand the relative contributions of IMPDH types I and II and HPRT to normal biological function, a mouse deficient in IMPDH type I was generated by standard gene-targeting techniques and bred to mice deficient in HPRT or heterozygous for IMPDH type II. T-cell activation in response to anti-CD3 plus anti-CD28 antibodies was significantly impaired in both single- and double-knockout mice, whereas a more general inhibition of proliferation in response to other T- and B-cell mitogens was observed only in mice deficient in both enzymes. In addition, IMPDH type I(-/-) HPRT(-/0) splenocytes showed reduced interleukin-4 production and impaired cytolytic activity after antibody activation, indicating an important role for guanine salvage in supplementing the de novo synthesis of guanine nucleotides. We conclude that both IMPDH and HPRT activities contribute to normal T-lymphocyte activation and function.

Synergy between imatinib and mycophenolic acid in inducing apoptosis in cell lines expressing Bcr-Abl.

Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase activity initiates a number of intracellular signaling cascades that result in leukemogenesis. Imatinib mesylate, a specific Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitor, has been highly successful in the treatment of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). However, the emergence of imatinib resistance and the incomplete molecular response of a significant number of patients receiving this therapy have led to a search for combinations of drugs that will enhance the efficacy of imatinib. We have demonstrated that mycophenolic acid (MPA), a specific inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) inhibitor that results in depletion of intracellular guanine nucleotides, is synergistic with imatinib in inducing apoptosis in Bcr-Abl-expressing cell lines. Studies of signaling pathways downstream of Bcr-Abl demonstrated that the addition of MPA to imatinib reduced the phosphorylation of both Stat5 and Lyn, a Src kinase family member. The phosphorylation of S6 ribosomal protein was also greatly reduced. These results demonstrate that inhibitors of guanine nucleotide biosynthesis may synergize with imatinib in reducing the levels of minimal residual disease in CML and lay the foundation for clinical trials in which IMPDH inhibitors are added to imatinib in patients who have suboptimal molecular responses to single agent therapy or who have progressive disease.

Induction of apoptosis in IL-3-dependent hematopoietic cell lines by guanine nucleotide depletion.

Inosine 5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) is a rate-limiting enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of IMP to xanthosine monophosphate (XMP) at the branch point of purine nucleotide biosynthesis, leading to the generation of guanine nucleotides. Inhibition of IMPDH results in the depletion of guanine nucleotides, prevents cell growth by G1 arrest, and induces cell differentiation in a cell-type-specific manner. The molecular and sensing mechanisms underlying these effects are not clear. We have examined the induction of apoptosis by mycophenolic acid (MPA), a specific IMPDH inhibitor, in interleukin-3 (IL-3)-dependent murine hematopoietic cell lines. MPA treatment, at clinically relevant doses, caused apoptosis in 32D myeloid cells and in FL5.12 and BaF3 pre-B cells in the ongoing presence of IL-3. Apoptosis was completely prevented by the addition of guanosine at time points up to 12 hours, after which caspase 3 activity increased and apoptosis was not reversible. MPA treatment caused marked down-regulation of the MAP kinase kinase/extracellular regulatory kinase (MEK/Erk) pathway at 3 hours while simultaneously increasing the phosphorylation of c-Jun kinase. In addition, MPA strongly down-regulated the mammalian target of rapamcyin (mTOR) pathway, as indicated by the decreased phosphorylation of p70 S6 kinase and of 4EBP1. Inhibition of either the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) or the mTOR pathway alone by standard pharmacologic inhibitors did not induce apoptosis in IL-3-dependent cells, whereas inhibition of both pathways simulated the effects of MPA treatment. These results indicate that IMPDH inhibitors may be effective in modulating signal transduction pathways in hematopoietic cells, suggesting their usefulness in chemotherapeutic regimens for hematologic malignancies.