Tyrosine phosphorylation of CD6 by stimulation of CD3: augmentation by the CD4 and CD2 coreceptors.

When T cells are activated via the T cell receptor (TCR) complex a number of cellular substrates, including some cell surface proteins, become phosphorylated on tyrosine (Tyr) residues. Phosphorylation of cytoplasmic Tyr renders these cell surface receptors competent to interact with proteins that link cell surface receptors to protein in the intracellular signaling pathways. Here we show that Tyr residues in the cytoplasmic domain of CD6 become phosphorylated upon T cell activation via the TCR complex. Tyr phosphorylation was observed when the T cells were activated by crosslinking CD3 or by cocrosslinking CD3 with CD2 or CD4, but not when the cells were stimulated by crosslinking CD2, CD4, or CD28 alone. Unlike other Tyr kinase substrates, such as the phospholipase C gamma 1-associated pp35/36 protein, whose level of Tyr phosphorylation is highest when T cells are activated by cocrosslinking CD3 with CD2, the levels of CD6 Tyr phosphorylation are highest when T cells were activated by cocrosslinking CD3 with CD4.

CD4, CD8 and the role of CD45 in T-cell activation.

CD4, CD8 and CD45 regulate the coupling of the T-cell receptor complex (CD3-TCR) to tyrosine kinase activation and phosphorylation of key substrates such as phospholipase C gamma 1. CD4 and CD8 contribute to activation signals through their cytoplasmic association with p56lck. Expression of the zeta-chain is required for functional synergy of the T-cell receptor with CD4 in the activation of phospholipase C gamma 1, which probably reflects an interaction between p56lck and zeta-associated kinase ZAP-70. CD45 expression is required for CD3-TCR signaling. CD45 may positively regulate signaling by dephosphorylating the carboxyl-terminal tyrosine of p56lck and p59fyn, and negatively regulate signaling by dephosphorylation of other TCR-associated substrates directly. One ligand for CD45 receptor has been identified as the B cell CD22 molecule. The positive and negative effects of CD45 are sensitive to the composition of CD45 in receptor complexes, and may be regulated by specific associations of CD45 isoforms with other receptors such as CD3-TCR, CD2 and CD4.

Novel yeast protein kinase (YPK1 gene product) is a 40-kilodalton phosphotyrosyl protein associated with protein-tyrosine kinase activity.

Extracts of bakers' yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) contain protein-tyrosine kinase activity that can be detected with a synthetic Glu-Tyr copolymer as substrate (G. Schieven, J. Thorner, and G.S. Martin, Science 231:390-393, 1986). By using this assay in conjunction with ion-exchange and affinity chromatography, a soluble tyrosine kinase activity was purified over 8,000-fold from yeast extracts. The purified activity did not utilize typical substrates for mammalian protein-tyrosine kinases (enolase, casein, and histones). The level of tyrosine kinase activity at all steps of each preparation correlated with the content of a 40-kDa protein (p40). Upon incubation of the most highly purified fractions with Mn-ATP or Mg-ATP, p40 was the only protein phosphorylated on tyrosine. Immunoblotting of purified p40 or total yeast extracts with antiphosphotyrosine antibodies and phosphoamino acid analysis of 32P-labeled yeast proteins fractionated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis indicated that the 40-kDa protein is normally phosphorylated at tyrosine in vivo. 32P-labeled p40 immunoprecipitated from extracts of metabolically labeled cells by affinity-purified anti-p40 antibodies contained both phosphoserine and phosphotyrosine. The gene encoding p40 (YPK1) was cloned from a yeast genomic library by using oligonucleotide probes designed on the basis of the sequence of purified peptides. As deduced from the nucleotide sequence of YPK1, p40 is homologous to known protein kinases, with features that resemble known protein-serine kinases more than known protein-tyrosine kinases. Thus, p40 is a protein kinase which is phosphorylated in vivo and in vitro at both tyrosine and serine residues; it may be a novel type of autophosphorylating tyrosine kinase, a bifunctional (serine/tyrosine-specific) protein kinase, or a serine kinase that is a substrate for an associated tyrosine kinase.

Ultraviolet radiation rapidly induces tyrosine phosphorylation and calcium signaling in lymphocytes.

UV radiation is known to induce lymphocyte nonresponsiveness both in vitro and in vivo. We have found that UV radiation rapidly induced tyrosine phosphorylation and calcium signaling in normal human peripheral blood lymphocytes. In the leukemic T cell line Jurkat and the Burkitt's lymphoma cell line Ramos, UV rapidly induced tyrosine phosphorylation in a wavelength-dependent manner, giving strong signals after UVB and UVC, but not UVA, irradiation. Similarly, in Jurkat cells UV-induced calcium signals were dependent on the dose of UVB or UVC irradiation over a range of 150-1200 J/m2, but only a small signal was observed for UVA at a dose of 1200 J/m2. The UV-induced calcium signals were blocked by the tyrosine kinase inhibitor herbimycin A, indicating that they were dependent on tyrosine phosphorylation. Phospholipase C (PLC) gamma 1 was tyrosine phosphorylated in response to UV irradiation but to a lesser extent than observed after CD3 cross-linking. However, PLC gamma 1-associated proteins demonstrated to bind to the PLC gamma 1 SH2 domain were tyrosine phosphorylated strongly after UV irradiation. A similar dose response was observed for the inhibition by herbimycin A of UV-induced calcium signals and UV-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of PLC gamma 1 and associated proteins. We propose that in contrast to CD3/Ti stimulation, UV aberrantly triggers lymphocyte signal transduction pathways by a mechanism that bypasses normal receptor control.

Activation of tyrosine kinase signal pathways by radiation and oxidative stress.

Most research on ionizing radiation, ultraviolet radiation, and H2O2 exposure has focused on the well-known ability of such agents to damage cellular components, particularly DNA. However, recent studies have shown that these events also act directly on components of tyrosine kinase signal transduction pathways, resulting in their activation. Cells use these types of pathways to transmit signals from surface receptors to the nucleus in response to a wide variety of stimuli, ranging from hormones and growth factors such as insulin, erythropoietin, and epidermal growth factor to antigen stimulation of lymphocytes. We propose that cellular responses to radiation and oxidative stress involve the active process of tyrosine kinase signal transduction, in addition to damage to DNA and other cellular components, leading to the activation of transcription factors and the subsequent induction of gene expression. The ability of radiation and oxidative stress to bypass control by normal ligands to act on receptors and their signal transduction pathways offers a new perspective on the ways in which organisms can respond to stress.

Selective phosphotyrosine phosphatase inhibition and increased ceramide formation is associated with B-cell death by apoptosis.

Bis(maltolato)oxovanadium(IV) (BMOV), a protein phosphotyrosine phosphatase inhibitor, selectively induced apoptosis (as quantitated by TUNEL staining) in a B-cell line (Ramos) but not in a T-cell line (Jurkat). The pattern of BMOV-induced protein tyrosine phosphorylation was different in B-cells versus T-cells. Further, BMOV induced a 2-fold increase in ceramide levels in B-cells but not in T-cells and this resembled the ceramide increase following activation of the B-cell antigen receptor. A 2-fold increase in the ratio of ceramide to sphingomyelin in B-cells treated with BMOV suggested that sphingomyelinase activation was the result of the sustained tyrosine phosphorylation of specific proteins and activated the cell death pathway.

Phenylarsine oxide inhibits tyrosine phosphorylation of phospholipase C gamma 2 in human platelets and phospholipase C gamma 1 in NIH-3T3 fibroblasts.

The sulphydryl reagent phenylarsine oxide (PAO) (1 microM) inhibited completely formation of inositol phosphates in human platelets induced by collagen or by cross-linking of the platelet low affinity Fc receptor, F c gamma RIIA, but did not alter the response to the G protein receptor agonist thrombin. PAO also inhibited completely tyrosine phosphorylation of PLC gamma 2 in collagen and Fc gamma RIIA-stimulated cells, although tyrosine phosphorylation of other proteins including the tyrosine kinase syk was relatively unaffected. PAO (1 microM) also inhibited completely tyrosine phosphorylation of PLC gamma 1 induced by platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) in NIH-3T3 fibroblasts but only partially reduced phosphorylation of the PDGF receptor. These results provide further evidence that collagen and Fc gamma RIIA cross-linking activate platelets through a pathway distinct from that used by thrombin and suggest that PAO may be a selective inhibitor of PLC gamma relative to PLC beta isozymes.

Collagen stimulates tyrosine phosphorylation of phospholipase C-gamma 2 but not phospholipase C-gamma 1 in human platelets.

Collagen is an important primary stimulus of platelets during the process of hemostasis. As with many other platelet stimuli, collagen signal transduction involves the hydrolysis of inositol phospholipids; however, the mechanisms which underlies this event is not well understood. Neither the collagen receptor nor the isoform of phospholipase C that is activated have been identified. We report that collagen-activation of platelets induces tyrosine phosphorylation of phospholipase C-gamma 2 but not phospholipase C-gamma 1. We also show that the platelet low affinity Fc receptor (Fc gamma RII), which mediates activation of platelets by immune complexes, and wheat germ agglutinin, which binds non-specifically to glycoprotein, stimulate phospholipase C-gamma 2 tyrosine phosphorylation. In contrast, we could not detect phospholipase C-gamma 2 tyrosine phosphorylation in platelets stimulated by either thrombin or a stable thromboxane A2 analogue, U46619.

Developmental regulation of pp44/46, tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins associated with tyrosine/serine kinase activity in Trypanosoma brucei.

The pattern of tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins is developmentally regulated in Trypanosoma brucei. To examine the function and regulation of these tyrosine-phosphorylated molecules, monoclonal antibodies were generated using purified tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins as immunogens. Two monoclonal antibodies were obtained. Both react with a set of proteins at 44-46 kDa, collectively referred to as pp44/46, that are phosphorylated on serine and tyrosine. Differentiation of the parasite from slender bloodforms to procyclic forms was accompanied by increased abundance and tyrosine-phosphorylation of pp44/46. The monoclonal antibodies immunoprecipitated protein kinase activity capable of phosphorylating pp44/46 on serine and tyrosine, and myelin basic protein on serine. The data indicate that the prominent tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins induced upon differentiation are either themselves protein kinases or that they are associated with protein kinases.

Distinct patterns of tyrosine phosphorylation during the life cycle of Trypanosoma brucei.

Regulation of tyrosine phosphorylation is a critical element in controlling growth and differentiation in higher eukaryotes. We have determined that the protozoan Trypanosoma brucei, which diverged early in the eukaryotic lineage, possesses multiple proteins which react with a specific anti-phosphotyrosine antiserum. Anti-phosphotyrosine immunoprecipitates of [32P]orthophosphate-labeled cells were shown to contain phosphotyrosine by two-dimensional electrophoresis. Western analysis of cells from different stages of the life cycle demonstrates the appearance of tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins at 40-42 kDa during the transition from slender to stumpy blood-forms. Growth of procyclic form cells in orthovanadate resulted in increased levels of specific tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins. The demonstration of phosphotyrosine-containing proteins in T. brucei and their differential regulation during the life cycle suggests that tyrosine kinases and phosphatases may play an important role in the biology of primitive protozoa.

Signal transduction by HLA-DR is mediated by tyrosine kinase(s) and regulated by CD45 in activated T cells.

Recently, it was shown that HLA class II molecules on B cells and activated human T cells can transmit signals involving tyrosine phosphorylation of specific proteins, activation of the inositol phospholipid pathway, and release of cytosolic free Ca2+(Ca2+)i. The regulation of class II induced signals is poorly understood, however, and it remained unknown whether these pathways were coupled or activated independently. Here we show that a specific inhibitor of protein tyrosine kinases (PTK), herbimycin, abrogated DR-induced elevation of (Ca2+)i in activated human T cells. Genistein, belonging to another family of PTK inhibitors, had weaker but significant inhibitory effects on DR-induced (Ca2+)i responses. CD45 crosslinking with DR almost completely abrogated DR-induced (Ca2+)i responses and profoundly changed the PTK profiles. In contrast, CD4 crosslinking with DR enhanced the (Ca2+)i responses, but the inhibitory effect of CD45 dominated over the enhancing effect of CD4. These data indicate that PTK activation is obligatory for DR-induced (Ca2+)i responses, suggesting a linkage between these pathways in class II signal transduction. This conclusion is consistent with our observation that in activated human T cells, class II signals are up regulated by CD4, which is associated with p56lck, and down regulated by CD45, which is a tyrosine phosphatase.

Impact of oxidative stress on signal transduction control by phosphotyrosine phosphatases.

Phosphotyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) serve as important regulators of cellular signal transduction pathways. PTPs are sensitive targets of oxidative stress and may be inhibited by treatments that induce intracellular oxidation. The effects of PTP inactivation under oxidizing conditions are amplified by the redox-linked activation of key protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs), thus leading to the initiation of phosphotyrosine-signaling cascades that are no longer under normal receptor control. These ligand-independent signals result in the accumulation of protein phosphotyrosine, the generation of second messengers, the activation of downstream kinases, and the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B). In this review we consider the relative contribution of oxidative stress to the effects of PTP inhibition by vanadium-based compounds in lymphocytes. Although the inactivation of PTPs can lead to NF-kappa B mobilization in the presence of antioxidants, the other effects noted appear to require a threshold of intracellular oxidation. The combined effects of oxidative stress on signal transduction cascades reflect a synergy between the initiation of signals by PTKs and the loss of control by PTPs. This suggests a mechanism by which environmental agents that cause oxidative stress may alter the course of cellular responses through induction or enhancement of signaling cascades leading to functional changes or cell death.

Ultraviolet radiation induces differential calcium signals in human peripheral blood lymphocyte subsets.

Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is known to suppress normal lymphocyte function, which allows UV phototherapy for a variety of applications. Although UV radiation is well known to cause DNA damage, recent findings indicate that UV irradiation can activate cellular signal-transduction processes. We have previously found that UV induces tyrosine phosphorylation in lymphocytes in a dose- and wavelength-dependent manner and also induces Ca2+ signals in Jurkat T cells via tyrosine phosphorylation of PLC gamma 1 and associated proteins. In this study, normal human lymphocyte subsets were examined for UV-induced Ca2+ responses. CD4+ and CD8+ T cells gave strong responses, whereas other cells did not. Although B cells did not have substantial Ca2+ signals, the pattern of UV-induced tyrosine phosphorylation was very similar to that observed after surface immunoglobulin cross-linking. We propose that the inhibitory effect of UV on lymphocyte function may be due in part to an active induction of tyrosine phosphorylation and Ca2+ signals by a process that bypasses normal receptor control.

The interaction of CD4 with CD3/Ti regulates tyrosine phosphorylation of substrates during T cell activation.

Phosphorylation of proteins on tyrosine residues during activation was studied in CD3+ CEM T cells. Crosslinking of either CD4 alone or CD3/Ti alone induced weak and transient responses, but the patterns of induced tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins were different. A synergistic but still transient response occurred by the specific interaction of CD4 with CD3/Ti, whereas simultaneous but separate ligation of CD3/Ti and CD4 decreased rather than increased tyrosine phosphorylation of proteins in comparison to CD3/Ti stimulation alone. Stimulation of T cells with immobilized anti-CD3 induced strong and prolonged tyrosine phosphorylation of distinct substrates. CD4 therefore regulates protein tyrosine kinase activation by specific interaction with CD3/Ti, whereas immobilized anti-CD3 may differ from anti-CD3 in solution in the activation of protein tyrosine phosphatase(s) such as CD45.

CD45 cross-linking regulates phospholipase C activation and tyrosine phosphorylation of specific substrates in CD3/Ti-stimulated T cells.

In lymphocytes, CD45 regulates the increase in cytoplasmic calcium concentration that occurs after receptor cross-linking. Here we show that T cell receptor complex (CD3/Ti)-mediated inositol phosphate production was inhibited by CD45 ligation in Jurkat cells. CD3/Ti signaling in normal T cells was also inhibited by CD45 ligation, but coupling of CD4 with CD3/Ti gave augmented calcium signals that were entirely resistant to the inhibitory effect of CD45. In contrast, CD3-induced T cell proliferation was suppressed by immobilized CD45 mAb even in the presence of CD4 mAb. The effect of CD45 and CD4 ligation on tyrosine phosphorylation during T cell activation was directly examined by immunoblotting with anti-phosphotyrosine. Using immobilized mAb, CD45 ligation suppressed the tyrosine phosphorylation of specific substrates induced by CD3/Ti stimulation, including almost complete suppression of 150-, 36-, and 35-kDa proteins and partial suppression of 76- and 80-kDa proteins. Other tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins induced by CD3/Ti stimulation, including 135- and 21-kDa proteins, were not suppressed by simultaneous ligation of CD3/Ti and CD45. Simultaneous ligation of CD3 and CD4 enhanced tyrosine phosphorylation of all substrates, but did not overcome the CD45-mediated suppression of tyrosine phosphorylation of the 35- and 36-kDa proteins. The CD45-mediated suppression of phospholipase C activation is therefore modulated by association with CD4 without altering the specific inhibition of tyrosine phosphorylation and T cell proliferation after co-ligation of CD45 and CD3/Ti.

Signal transduction by HLA class II antigens expressed on activated T cells.

Human T cells express HLA class II antigens upon activation. Although activated, class II+ T cells can present alloantigens under certain circumstances, the functional role of class II antigens on activated T cells remains largely unknown. Here, we report that cross-linking of HLA-DR molecules expressed on allospecific, CD4+ T clones and cell lines can function as transduction elements that trigger rapid cellular responses including tyrosine phosphorylation of cellular proteins and mobilization of Ca2+ from internal stores. The proteins phosphorylated on tyrosine were distinct from those observed after cross-linking CD4. Ligation of CD4 and class II molecules generated a synergistic effect of the intracellular free Ca2+ concentration response that required an interaction between the molecules on the cell surface. Since class II is the natural ligand for CD4, the present data suggest that class II is induced on activated T cells to regulate CD4 function, possibly by specific interaction with the CD4-associated p56lck protein tyrosine kinase.

Lineage-specific induction of B cell apoptosis and altered signal transduction by the phosphotyrosine phosphatase inhibitor bis(maltolato)oxovanadium(IV).

Protein tyrosine phosphorylation is known to play key roles in lymphocyte signal transduction, and phosphotyrosine phosphatases (PTP) can act as both positive and negative regulators of these lymphocyte signals. We sought to examine the role of PTP further in these processes by characterizing the effects of bis(maltolato)-oxovanadium(IV) (BMLOV), previously known to be a nontoxic insulin mimetic agent in vivo. BMLOV was found to be a potent phosphotyrosine phosphatase inhibitor. BMLOV induced cellular tyrosine phosphorylation in B cells in a pattern similar to that observed following antigen receptor stimulation, whereas little tyrosine phosphorylation was induced in T cells. In B cells, BMLOV treatment resulted in tyrosine phosphorylation of Syk and phospholipase C gamma 2, while sIgM-induced signals were inhibited. By contrast, T cell receptor signals were moderately increased by BMLOV, and the cells displayed greater induction of IL-2 receptor without toxicity. The compound selectively induced apoptosis in B cell lymphoma and myeloid leukemia cell lines, but not in T cell leukemia or colon carcinoma cells. Interleukin-4 plus anti-CD40 antibody treatment of normal human peripheral B cells rescued the cells from BMLOV-induced death. These results suggest that phosphotyrosine phosphatase inhibitors can activate B cell signal pathways in a lineage-specific manner, resulting in desensitization of receptor-mediated signaling and induction of apoptosis.

Positive selection for loss of tetracycline resistance.

A simple technique has been devised that allows direct plate selection of tetracycline-sensitive clones from a predominantly tetracycline-resistant population. The technique is especially useful in genetic methodologies based on the use of tetracycline resistance transposons, such as Tn10. Potential uses of the method include selection of deletion mutants, fine-structure mapping, generalized mapping, construction of multiply marked strains, elimination of tetracycline resistance transposons and plasmids and cloning. The technique is based on our finding that tetracycline-resistant cells are hypersensitive to lipophilic chelating agents, such as fusaric acid. This finding supports the contention that certain metal ions critically facilitate tetracycline uptake and leads us to suggest possible molecular mechanisms for tetracycline resistance.