Role of Guideline Adherence in Improving Field Triage.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the sensitivity of current field triage practices for identifying high-risk trauma patients to strict guideline adherence, including changes in triage specificity, ambulance transport patterns, and trauma center volumes. METHODS: This was a pre-planned secondary analysis of an out-of-hospital prospective cohort of injured children and adults transported by 44 EMS agencies to 28 trauma and non-trauma hospitals in 7 Northwest U.S. counties from January 1, 2011 through December 31, 2011. Outcomes included Injury Severity Score (ISS) ≥16 (primary) and early critical resource use. Strict adherence of the triage guidelines was based on evidence in the EMS chart for patients meeting any current field triage criteria, calculated with and without strict interpretation of the age criterion (<15 or >55 years). Due to the probability sampling nature of the cohort, strata and weights were included in all analyses. RESULTS: 17,633 injured patients were transported by EMS (weighted to represent 53,487 transported patients), including 3.1% with ISS ≥16 and 1.7% requiring early critical resources. Field triage sensitivity for identifying patients with ISS ≥16 increased from the current 66.2% (95% CI 60.2-71.7%) to 87.3% (95% CI 81.9-91.2%) for strict adherence without age and to 91.0% (95% CI 86.4-94.2%) for strict adherence with age. Specificity decreased with increasing adherence, from 87.8% (current) to 47.6% (strict adherence without age) and 35.8% (strict adherence with age). Areas under the curve (AUC) were 0.78, 0.73, and 0.72, respectively. Results were similar for patients requiring early critical resources. We estimate the number of triage-positive patients transported each year by EMS to an individual major trauma center (on average) to increase from 1,331 (current) to 5,139 (strict adherence without age) and to 6,256 (strict adherence with age). CONCLUSIONS: The low sensitivity of current triage practices would be expected to improve with strict adherence to current triage guidelines, with a commensurate decrease in triage specificity and an increase in the number of triage-positive patients transported to major trauma centers.

EMS Provider Attitudes and Perceptions of Enrolling Patients without Consent in Prehospital Emergency Research.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the attitudes and opinions of a broad population of EMS providers on enrolling patients in research without consent. A survey was conducted in 2010 of all EMS providers who participated in the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (NREMT) reregistration process, which included half of all registered providers. Each reregistration packet included our optional survey, which had nine 6-point Likert scale questions concerning their opinion of research studies without consent as well as 8 demographic questions. Responses were collapsed to agree and disagree and then analyzed using descriptive statistics with 99% confidence intervals. A total of 65,993 EMS providers received the survey and 23,832 (36%) participated. Most respondents agreed (98.4%, 99%CI: 98.2-98.6) that EMS research is important, but only 30.9% (99%CI: 30.1-31.6) agreed with enrolling patients without their consent when it is important to learn about a new treatment. Only 46.6% (99%Cl: 45.7-47.4) were personally willing to be enrolled in a study without their consent. A majority (68.5% [99%Cl: 67.7-69.3]) of respondents believed that EMS providers should have the individual right to refuse to enroll patients in EMS research. While the majority of respondents agreed that EMS research is important, considerably less agree with enrolling patients without consent and less than half would be willing to be enrolled in a study without their consent. Prior to starting an Exception from Informed Consent (EFIC) study, researchers should discuss with EMS providers their perceptions of enrolling patients without consent and address their concerns.

A trial of an impedance threshold device in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

BACKGROUND: The impedance threshold device (ITD) is designed to enhance venous return and cardiac output during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) by increasing the degree of negative intrathoracic pressure. Previous studies have suggested that the use of an ITD during CPR may improve survival rates after cardiac arrest. METHODS: We compared the use of an active ITD with that of a sham ITD in patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest who underwent standard CPR at 10 sites in the United States and Canada. Patients, investigators, study coordinators, and all care providers were unaware of the treatment assignments. The primary outcome was survival to hospital discharge with satisfactory function (i.e., a score of ≤3 on the modified Rankin scale, which ranges from 0 to 6, with higher scores indicating greater disability). RESULTS: Of 8718 patients included in the analysis, 4345 were randomly assigned to treatment with a sham ITD and 4373 to treatment with an active device. A total of 260 patients (6.0%) in the sham-ITD group and 254 patients (5.8%) in the active-ITD group met the primary outcome (risk difference adjusted for sequential monitoring, -0.1 percentage points; 95% confidence interval, -1.1 to 0.8; P=0.71). There were also no significant differences in the secondary outcomes, including rates of return of spontaneous circulation on arrival at the emergency department, survival to hospital admission, and survival to hospital discharge. CONCLUSIONS: Use of the ITD did not significantly improve survival with satisfactory function among patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest receiving standard CPR. (Funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and others; ROC PRIMED ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00394706.).

Integrating palliative care in the out-of-hospital setting: four things to jump-start an EMS-palliative care initiative.

Emergency medical service (EMS) is frequently called to care for a seriously ill patient with a life-threatening or life-limiting illness. The seriously ill include both the acutely injured patients (for example in mass casualty events) and those who suffer from advanced stages of a chronic disease (for example severe malignant pain). EMS therefore plays an important role in delivering realistic, appropriate, and timely care that is consistent with the patient's wishes and in treating distressing symptoms in those who are seriously ill. The purpose of this article is to; 1) review four case scenarios that relate to palliative care and may be commonly encountered in the out-of-hospital setting and 2) provide a road map by suggesting four things to do to start an EMS-palliative care initiative in order to optimize out-of-hospital care of the seriously ill and increase preparedness of EMS providers in these difficult situations.

The Oregon physician orders for life-sustaining treatment registry: a preliminary study of emergency medical services utilization.

BACKGROUND: The Physician Orders for Life-Sustaining Treatment (POLST) form translates patient treatment preferences into medical orders. The Oregon POLST Registry provides emergency personnel 24-h access to POLST forms. OBJECTIVE: To determine if Emergency Medical Technicians (EMTs) can use the Oregon POLST Registry to honor patient preferences. METHODS: Two telephone surveys were developed: one for the EMT who made a call to the Registry and one for the patient or the surrogate. The EMT survey was designed to determine if the POLST form accessed through the Registry changed the care of the patient. The patient/surrogate survey was designed to determine if the care provided matched the preferences on the POLST. When feasible, the Emergency Medical Services (EMS) record was reviewed to determine whether or not treatment was provided. RESULTS: During the study period there were 34 EMS calls with matches to patients' POLST forms, and 23 interviews were completed with EMS callers, for a response rate of 68%. In seven cases (30%) the patient was in cardiopulmonary arrest; one patient had a respiratory arrest with a pulse. Eight respondents (35%) reported that the patient was conscious and apparently able to make decisions about preferences. For 10 cases (44%) the POLST orders changed treatment, and in six instances (26%) they affected the decision to transport the patient. For the 10/11 patients or surrogates interviewed, the care reportedly matched their wishes. CONCLUSION: This small study suggests that an electronic registry of POLST forms can be used by EMTs to enhance their ability to locate and honor patient preferences regarding life-sustaining treatments.

Out-of-hospital decision making and factors influencing the regional distribution of injured patients in a trauma system.

BACKGROUND: The decision-making processes used for out-of-hospital trauma triage and hospital selection in regionalized trauma systems remain poorly understood. The objective of this study was to assess the process of field triage decision making in an established trauma system. METHODS: We used a mixed methods approach, including emergency medical services (EMS) records to quantify triage decisions and reasons for hospital selection in a population-based, injury cohort (2006-2008), plus a focused ethnography to understand EMS cognitive reasoning in making triage decisions. The study included 10 EMS agencies providing service to a four-county regional trauma system with three trauma centers and 13 nontrauma hospitals. For qualitative analyses, we conducted field observation and interviews with 35 EMS field providers and a round table discussion with 40 EMS management personnel to generate an empirical model of out-of-hospital decision making in trauma triage. RESULTS: A total of 64,190 injured patients were evaluated by EMS, of whom 56,444 (88.0%) were transported to acute care hospitals and 9,637 (17.1% of transports) were field trauma activations. For nontrauma activations, patient/family preference and proximity accounted for 78% of destination decisions. EMS provider judgment was cited in 36% of field trauma activations and was the sole criterion in 23% of trauma patients. The empirical model demonstrated that trauma triage is driven primarily by EMS provider "gut feeling" (judgment) and relies heavily on provider experience, mechanism of injury, and early visual cues at the scene. CONCLUSIONS: Provider cognitive reasoning for field trauma triage is more heuristic than algorithmic and driven primarily by provider judgment, rather than specific triage criteria.

Local media influence on opting out from an exception from informed consent trial.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: News media are used for community education and notification in exception from informed consent clinical trials, yet their effectiveness as an added safeguard in such research remains unknown. We assessed the number of callers requesting opt-out bracelets after each local media report and described the errors and content within each media report. METHODS: We undertook a descriptive analysis of local media trial coverage (newspaper, television, radio, and Web log) and opt-out requests during a 41-month period at a single site participating in an exception from informed consent out-of-hospital trial. Two nontrial investigators independently assessed 41 content-based media variables (including background, trial information, graphics, errors, publication information, and assessment) with a standardized, semiqualitative data collection tool. Major errors were considered serious misrepresentation of the trial purpose or protocol, whereas minor errors included misinformation unlikely to mislead the lay reader about the trial. We plotted the temporal relationship between opt-out bracelet requests and media reports. Descriptive information about the news sources and the trial coverage are presented. RESULTS: We collected 39 trial-related media reports (33 newspaper, 1 television, 1 radio, and 4 blogs). There were 13 errors in 9 (23%) publications, 7 of which were major and 6 minor. Of 384 requests for 710 bracelets, 310 requests (80%) occurred within 4 days after trial media coverage. Graphic timeline representation of the data suggested a close association between media reports about the trial and requests for opt-out bracelets. CONCLUSION: According to results from a single site, local media coverage for an exception from informed consent clinical trial had a substantial portion of errors and appeared closely associated with opt-out requests.

A geospatial analysis of persons opting out of an exception from informed consent out-of-hospital clinical trial.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: For trials involving exception from informed consent, some IRBs require that community members be allowed to "opt out" prior to enrollment. We tested for geospatial clustering of opt-out requests and the associated census tract characteristics in one study region. METHODS: This was a retrospective study at a single site of a multicenter exception from informed consent resuscitation trial. We collected and geocoded mailing addresses for persons requesting opt-out bracelets over 16 months, then tested for geospatial clustering using geographic information systems (GIS) analysis. Characteristics for tracts with and without bracelet clustering were compared using univariate tests, multivariable regression, and classification and regression tree (CART) analysis. RESULTS: We received 395 phone calls requesting 718 bracelets, of which 673 were analyzable. Of 397 census tracts in the region, 208 (52%) had at least one request and 38 (10%) demonstrated clustering. In multivariable models, an increasing proportion of family households (OR .90, 95%CI .85-.93), veterans (OR .91, 95%CI .81-1.02), and renters (OR .96, 95%CI .92-.99) were associated with lower odds of requesting an opt-out bracelet, while census tracts with higher income had higher odds of opting-out (OR 1.07, 95%CI 1.02-1.11). Using CART, the proportion of family households and graduate education identified the majority of opt-out requests by census tracts (cross-validation sensitivity 92%, specificity 56%). CONCLUSIONS: Opt-out requests for an exception from informed consent trial at one study site were geographically clustered and associated with certain population demographics. These findings may help identify key target groups for community consultation in future trials.

The random dialing survey as a tool for community consultation for research involving the emergency medicine exception from informed consent.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: In 1996, the Food and Drug Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services enacted rules allowing a narrow exception from informed consent for critically ill patients enrolled in emergency research. These include requirements for community consultation prior to trial implementation. Previous studies have noted difficulty in engaging the community. We seek to describe the experience with random dialing surveys as a tool for community consultation across 5 metropolitan regions in the United States. METHODS: Random dialing surveys were used as part of the community consultation for an out-of-hospital clinical trial sponsored by the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium. The survey method was designed to obtain a representative sample of the community according to population demographics and geography. Logistics of survey administration, role of the survey in community consultation, and survey results by population demographics are discussed. RESULTS: Random dialing surveys were conducted in 5 of 8 US Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium sites. Overall, 70% to 79% of respondents indicated they would be willing to be enrolled in this study. Support for the inclusion of children (aged 15 to 18 years) ranged from 52% to 71%. Respondents aged 18 to 34 years were more willing to participate in the trial than older age groups. Women and racial minorities were less likely to favor the inclusion of minors. CONCLUSION: Random dialing surveys provide an additional tool to engage the community and obtain a sample of the opinion of the population about research conducted under the emergency exception from informed consent regulations. Similar results were obtained across 5 diverse communities in the United States.

Torsade de Pointes after administration of droperidol for nausea and vomiting.

We report an emergency medical services (EMS) case of self-limited torsade de pointes after administration of droperidol for nausea and vomiting in a patient with potential predisposing factors for the development of prolonged QT interval. Despite the reported association with torsade de pointes, many clinicians still consider droperidol to be a safe medication. Rare cardiac side effects may be avoided by reviewing risk factors for prolonged QT interval in individual patients prior to administering droperidol.

Emergency medical service providers' attitudes and experiences regarding enrolling patients in clinical research trials.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate Emergency Medical Services (EMS) providers' attitudes and experiences about enrolling patients in clinical research trials utilizing the federal rules for exception from informed consent. We hypothesized that Emergency Medical Technicians (EMTs) would have varied attitudes about research using an exception from informed consent which could have an impact on the research. METHODS AND SETTING: Since January 2007, the EMS system has been participating in a randomized, multi-center interventional trial in which out-of-hospital providers enroll critically injured trauma patients using exception from informed consent.A voluntary, anonymous, written survey was administered to EMS providers during an in-service. The survey included demographics and Likert-type questions about their experiences with and attitudes towards research in general, and research using an exception from informed consent for an out-of-hospital clinical trial. RESULTS: The response rate was 79.3% (844/1067). Most respondents, 93.3%, agreed that "research in EMS care is important." However, 38.5% also agreed that individual EMTs/paramedics should maintain the personal right of refusal to enroll patients in EMS trials. Fifty-four percent of respondents agreed with the statement that "the right of research subjects to make their own choices is more important than the interests of the general community." In response to statements about the current study, 11.3% agreed that "the study is unethical because the patient cannot consent" and 69.2% responded that they would personally be willing to be enrolled in the study before they were able to give consent if they were seriously injured. Those who had not enrolled a patient into the study (681 respondents) were asked their reasons: 76.8% had not encountered an eligible patient or did not work for an agency that carried the fluid; 4.3% did not have time; 4.1% forgot and 1.1% stated that they were opposed to enrolling patients in studies without their consent. CONCLUSION: The majority of EMS personnel in one community support EMS research and this specific out-of-hospital clinical trial being conducted under an exception from informed consent. Potential barriers to enrollment were identified. Further study in other systems is warranted to better understand EMS provider perspectives about exception from informed consent research.

Community consultation methods in a study using exception to informed consent.

OBJECTIVE: The most effective means of community consultation is unknown. We evaluated differences in community opinion elicited by varying means of consultation. METHODS: We compared responses with a cross-sectional, standardized survey administered as part of the community consultation for the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium (ROC) hypertonic saline trial. Surveys were obtained from four sources: two sets of random-digit dialing phone surveys, paper surveys from community meetings, and web-based surveys. RESULTS: Three hundred sixty-one usable surveys were obtained: 186 from phone survey 1; 86 from phone survey 2 (using slightly modified wording); 54 from community meetings (8 from open forums; 46 from existing meetings); and 35 from a web site. Demographics were similar between the sets except that the surveys obtained from community meetings had the highest minority representation (63.3% nonwhite). Community meeting respondents were more willing than phone or web respondents to receive experimental treatment for themselves (93.6% vs. 77.5% overall) and for a family member (95.2% vs. 74.9% overall). The web-based survey generated the least feedback and had the most higher-income responders. CONCLUSIONS: Responses varied by method of consultation. The open forums were very poorly attended, despite heavy advertising by investigators. Furthermore, attendees at those meetings provided the least objection to proposed research without informed consent. Phone surveys elicited the most objections. We suggest that an efficient method of community consultation is random-digit dialing supplemented with discussion at already scheduled events to target special populations.

Correction: Analytical Sensitivity Comparison between Singleplex Real-Time PCR and a Multiplex PCR Platform for Detecting Respiratory Viruses.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143164.].

The association between AHA CPR quality guideline compliance and clinical outcomes from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

BACKGROUND: Measures of chest compression fraction (CCF), compression rate, compression depth and pre-shock pause have all been independently associated with improved outcomes from out-of-hospital (OHCA) cardiac arrest. However, it is unknown whether compliance with American Heart Association (AHA) guidelines incorporating all the aforementioned metrics, is associated with improved survival from OHCA. METHODS: We performed a secondary analysis of prospectively collected data from the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium Epistry-Cardiac Arrest database. As per the 2015 American Heart Association (AHA) guidelines, guideline compliant cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) was defined as CCF >0.8, chest compression rate 100-120/minute, chest compression depth 50-60mm, and pre-shock pause <10s. Multivariable logistic regression models controlling for Utstein variables were used to assess the relationship between global guideline compliance and survival to hospital discharge and neurologically intact survival with MRS ≤3. Due to potential confounding between CPR quality metrics and cases that achieved early ROSC, we performed an a priori subgroup analysis restricted to patients who obtained ROSC after ≥10min of EMS resuscitation. RESULTS: After allowing for study exclusions, 19,568 defibrillator records were collected over a 4-year period ending in June 2015. For all reported models, the reference standard included all cases who did not meet all CPR quality benchmarks. For the primary model (CCF, rate, depth), there was no significant difference in survival for resuscitations that met all CPR quality benchmarks (guideline compliant) compared to the reference standard (OR 1.26; 95% CI: 0.80, 1.97). When the dataset was restricted to patients obtaining ROSC after ≥10min of EMS resuscitation (n=4,158), survival was significantly higher for those resuscitations that were guideline compliant (OR 2.17; 95% CI: 1.11, 4.27) compared to the reference standard. Similar findings were obtained for neurologically intact survival with MRS ≤3 (OR 3.03; 95% CI: 1.12, 8.20). CONCLUSIONS: In this observational study, compliance with AHA guidelines for CPR quality was not associated with improved outcomes from OHCA. Conversely, when restricting the cohort to those with late ROSC, compliance with guidelines was associated with improved clinical outcomes. Strategies to improve overall guideline compliance may have a significant impact on outcomes from OHCA.

Moral moments at the end of life.

Decision making near the end of life can be complex and laden with emotion for families and health care providers. Families and patients can prepare themselves for these difficult moments by thinking ahead about the patient's wishes and preparing clear documents that express those wishes. Health care providers can prepare themselves by being familiar with those documents, considering the goals of treatment, remembering the principles on which health care ethics are founded and knowing decision-making models that will help them to think through treatment plans and the best options for patient taking into consideration the goals of treatment.

Shared Decision Making to Support the Provision of Palliative and End-of-Life Care in the Emergency Department: A Consensus Statement and Research Agenda.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the optimal use of shared decision making (SDM) to guide palliative and end-of-life decisions in the emergency department (ED). OBJECTIVE: The objective was to convene a working group to develop a set of research questions that, when answered, will substantially advance the ability of clinicians to use SDM to guide palliative and end-of-life care decisions in the ED. METHODS: Participants were identified based on expertise in emergency, palliative, or geriatrics care; policy or patient-advocacy; and spanned physician, nursing, social work, legal, and patient perspectives. Input from the group was elicited using a time-staggered Delphi process including three teleconferences, an open platform for asynchronous input, and an in-person meeting to obtain a final round of input from all members and to identify and resolve or describe areas of disagreement. CONCLUSION: Key research questions identified by the group related to which ED patients are likely to benefit from palliative care (PC), what interventions can most effectively promote PC in the ED, what outcomes are most appropriate to assess the impact of these interventions, what is the potential for initiating advance care planning in the ED to help patients define long-term goals of care, and what policies influence palliative and end-of-life care decision making in the ED. Answers to these questions have the potential to substantially improve the quality of care for ED patients with advanced illness.

Life-sustaining treatment orders, location of death and co-morbid conditions in decedents with Parkinson's disease.

INTRODUCTION: End-of-life care in Parkinson's Disease (PD) is poorly described. Physician Orders for Life Sustaining Treatment (POLST) forms specify how much life-sustaining treatment to provide. This study aims to better understand end-of-life care in PD using data from the Oregon POLST and Death Registries. METHODS: Oregon death certificates from the years 2010-2011 were analyzed. Death certificates were matched with forms in the Oregon POLST Registry. Descriptive analyses were performed for both the full PD dataset as well as those with POLST forms. RESULTS: There were 1073 (1.8%) decedents with PD listed as a cause of death and 56,961 without. Three hundred and seventy three (35%) decedents with PD had a POLST form. POLST preferences were not significantly different between those with or without PD, however location of death was; hospital (13% PD vs 24% without p < 0.01), home (32% vs 40% p < 0.01) and care facility (52% vs 29% p < 0.01). Compared to those without a POLST or those without a Comfort Measures Only (CMO) order, decedents with PD and a CMO order were less likely to die in a hospital (5.4% vs 14.7% p < 0.01) and more likely to die at home (39.1% vs 29.1% p < 0.01). In those with PD, dementia was the most common comorbid condition listed on death certificates (16%). CONCLUSION: Decedents with PD die less frequently at home than the general population. POLST forms mitigate some of this discrepancy. While not often thought to be terminal, PD and its complications are commonly recorded causes of death.

Timing of POLST Form Completion by Cause of Death.

CONTEXT: The physician orders for life-sustaining treatment (POLST) paradigm allows health care professionals to document the treatment preferences of patients with advanced illness or frailty as portable and actionable medical orders. National standards encourage offering POLST orders to patients for whom clinicians would not be surprised if they died in the next year. OBJECTIVES: To determine the influence of cause of death on the timing of POLST form completion and on changes to POLST orders as death approaches. METHODS: This was a cohort study of 18,285 Oregon POLST Registry decedents who died in 2010-2011 matched to Oregon death certificates. RESULTS: The median interval between POLST completion and death was 6.4 weeks. Those dying of cancer had forms completed nearer death (median 5.1 weeks) than those with organ failure (10.6 weeks) or dementia (14.5 weeks; P < 0.001). More than 90% of final POLST forms indicated orders for no resuscitation and 65.1% listed orders for comfort measures only. Eleven percent of the sample had multiple registered forms during the two years preceding their death, with the form completed nearest to death more likely than earlier forms to have orders for no resuscitation and comfort measures only, although some later forms did have orders for more treatment. CONCLUSION: More than half of POLST forms were completed in the final two months of life. Cause of death influenced when POLST forms were completed. POLST forms changed in the two years preceding death, more frequently recording fewer life-sustaining treatment orders than the earlier form(s).