Integrating animal health and foodborne disease surveillance.

The control of foodborne diseases from an animal source has become an important part of public health policy. Since the agents that cause these diseases originate in animals, Veterinary Services, as well as Public Health Services, must be involved in their control. Control programmes should be established either through cooperation between the two Services or by the consolidation of all those involved into a single food control agency. Surveillance is an important part of these control programmes. The following questions must be addressed when planning an effective surveillance programme. What is the relative incidence, morbidity, mortality and economic cost of the foodborne disease in humans? Is the animal population the exclusive or a significant source of the human foodborne infection? What kind of surveillance is needed to identify the disease-causing agent in the animal population? Are we interested in identifying all cases of a disease in order to eradicate it or is our aim to reduce its incidence in the animal population? Do we have the ability to control the disease in the animal population? What disease detection tests are available? What are the sensitivity, specificity and cost of these diagnostic tests? Finally, does the country, region or agency involved have the legal, financial and educational resources to carry out this surveillance and follow it up with appropriate action? After these questions have been resolved,the veterinary and public health sectors must jointly decide if surveillance and control are feasible. If so, they can then begin to develop an appropriate programme.

Disease prevention and preparedness for animal health emergencies in the Middle East.

The animal health situation in the Middle East is particularly unfavourable, as this area is exposed to many serious animal diseases. The Middle East is ill-prepared to institute disease prevention and control measures, due to deficiencies at both national and regional levels. Early detection, diagnosis and reporting of diseases must become a priority within these countries and effective communication should be maintained among them. Regional animal health programmes and the support of international institutions are essential to improve preparedness for natural or human-caused emergency situations, which can seriously affect animal health. Such emergencies can also have significant impacts on related public health issues.

The concept of compartmentalisation.

The rationale for establishing trade 'regions' and 'zones' is based on principles of epidemiological science and risk analysis that assess and manage animal disease risks so that the safety of trade can be ensured. However, the boundaries of geographical regions and zones may readily be breached through numerous epidemiological pathways. The concept of a 'compartment' extends the application of a 'risk boundary' beyond that of a geographical interface and considers all epidemiological factors that can contribute to the creation of an effective boundary. The fundamental requirement for application of either concept (regions/zones or compartments) is that the population considered for trade is maintained within management or geographical boundaries which allow clear epidemiological differentiation to be made between those animals and surrounding populations of higher risk. Seven factors are presented that an exporting country might use to guide the identification and documentation of a compartment. Additionally, the steps that would be undertaken to implement trade based on the compartmentalisation concept are discussed.

Slaughter of animals for human consumption.

This paper briefly describes the formation of the OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health) Ad hoc Group on Humane Slaughter of Animals, summarises its initial discussions and provides details of its recommendations. These recommendations were approved (with some amendments) at the 73rd General Session of the OIE International Committee and have been included in the 14th edition of the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (2005). The recommendations include some changes to current definitions of certain terminology, and guidelines pertaining to the commercial slaughter of animals for human consumption, designed to minimise avoidable pain and suffering at every stage of the pre-slaughter and slaughter processes. The main issues addressed by the Ad hoc Group were: general principles for slaughter, as related to personnel, animal behaviour, and the removal of distractions which can cause animals to stop or turn back; moving and handling animals following their arrival at the slaughterhouse; lairage design and construction; care of animals in lairages; and animal welfare issues associated with acceptable handling, restraining, stunning and slaughter methods applicable to various relevant species. The group acknowledged the significance of religious requirements as well as the cultural and ethnic factors associated with slaughter, and appropriate proposals were included in their final report. Important but less frequently occurring issues such as the management of foetuses during the slaughter of pregnant animals were also included in this work. Finally, the report of the Ad hoc Group also specified methods, procedures and practices that are unacceptable on animal welfare grounds.

Veterinary public health in Israel.

The epizootiological and ecological conditions in Israel, as well as socio-economic and agricultural structures, have created a unique and hazardous veterinary public health (VPH) situation. The paper describes various VPH problems concerning zoonotic diseases, products of animal origin and rural ecology, and the attempts to solve them by the State Veterinary Services and Animal Health.

Disease prevention and preparedness in cases of animal health emergencies in the Middle East.

The animal health situation in the Middle East is particularly unfavourable, in that this area is significantly exposed to many serious animal diseases. Typical factors which contribute to this situation are illustrated with reference to an outbreak of Rift Valley fever in Egypt from 1977 to 1980. The Middle East is ill prepared to institute disease prevention and control measures, due to deficiencies at both national and regional levels. Early disease detection, diagnosis and reporting must become a priority, both within these countries and among them. The author describes several regional animal health programmes which are supported by international institutions and underlines their respective importance.

Traditional veterinary medicine in the Near East: Jews, Arab Bedouins and Fellahs.

The authors review traditional veterinary medicine in the Near East region. The ancient Jewish sources--principally the Bible, the Talmud and other, more recent manuscripts--contain ample discussions of veterinary medicine and various aspects of the relations between humans and animals. These include zoonotic diseases, hygiene, intoxications, and various preventive and curative measures, as well as legislation and guidelines for the proper treatment of livestock. Arab shepherds, and particularly the Bedouins, have a long tradition of experience in the diagnosis and treatment of various ailments, predominantly using plant mixtures and fire branding.

Health hazards to the small ruminant population of the Middle East posed by the trade of sheep and goat meat.

Meat consumers in the Middle East traditionally prefer meat from freshly slaughtered animals to that from chilled or frozen carcasses. Consequently, meat trade in the Middle East is based mainly upon the importation of large quantities of live animals rather than of sheep and goat carcasses. Furthermore, as it seems that pathogens remain viable for longer periods of time in live animals than in meat, the probability of pathogens spreading in the Middle East as a result of contaminated small ruminant carcasses is lower than the probability of pathogens being imported through live animals. With suitable environmental conditions, however, there are two livestock diseases which may spread through meat, namely: foot and mouth disease (FMD) and transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). Foot and mouth disease virus which might have survived in the bones and offal of animals slaughtered in FMD-infected areas may be transmitted to animals in other regions. This occurs if carcass waste matter is not properly disposed of and is a particular problem where scavenging animals may carry away the infective material. Due to the low standards in garbage and sewage collection methods in many regions of the Middle East, such an eventuality should never be overlooked. Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies may be introduced into sensitive animal populations if the waste matter of slaughtered sheep and goats is processed into animal feed. This would occur if animal products which have not undergone treatment to inactivate the scrapie agent are used in the rendering process. The risk of introducing TSEs into livestock populations of the Middle East in this way is very low, since the rendering technology and the use of animal waste matter as feed are not part of the local traditional husbandry practices.

International monitoring and surveillance of animal diseases using official and unofficial sources.

The need for quality and timely animal disease information, including data on zoonoses, has become more crucial than ever, not only for animal health stakeholders but also for the general public worldwide. Since its creation in 1924, the World organisation for animal health (OIE: Office International des EEpizooties) has played an active role in sharing disease information among countries and in the prevention and control of animal and zoonotic disease spread. Recently, the OIE established a single list of animal diseases with new criteria for inclusion in this list. The overriding criterion for a disease to be listed is its potential for international spread. Other criteria include its zoonotic potential or its capacity for significant spread within naive populations. Special attention is paid to the detection and listing of emerging infectious animal diseases. Member countries are obliged to submit immediate notifications and follow-up reports if infections of the listed diseases or exceptional epidemiological events occur within their country. Early warning of emerging and re-emerging animal diseases is essential for prompt precautionary measures to be taken, at national and international levels, to protect both animal and human health. At times, a proactive approach is required to ensure greater transparency. For the past few years the OIE has been examining different sources of unofficial information on disease outbreaks. These are analysed and if necessary, verified. One of the external sources of information used by the OIE to improve transparency is ProMED-mail, an internet-based reporting system that derives its data from a comprehensive range of official and unofficial sources, the media and on-site observers. Free of political constraint and staffed by professionals to ensure credibility, it is able to post very rapid preliminary and unofficial reports and summaries.

Bluetongue in Israel - a brief historical overview.

Bluetongue (BT) was first observed in Israel in 1944. The author presents a brief history of BT in Israel and of selected topics which might be useful for the planning of control and prevention policies in newly affected areas within the Mediterranean Basin. Systematic epidemiological, virological and entomological monitoring has been ongoing in Israel since 1964. BT virus serotypes 2, 4, 6, 10 and 16 have been identified. The seasonality of the disease, susceptibility of selected sheep breeds, resistance of goats and of native sheep breeds, high seroconversion rate (combined with the absence of clinical signs or affected fertility) in bovines and the impact of vaccination with live-attenuated vaccines on pregnant sheep are presented and discussed.

Bluetongue: virological and epidemiological observations in Israel.

Bluetongue (BT) has become endemic in Israel. Five BT virus (BTV) types have been identified, of which BTV 4 is dominant. Results of the regular monitoring of viral activity in ruminants and Culicoides, including country-wide serological surveillance in bovines and virus recovery trials from bovine semen, are represented. The seasonal and geographical distribution, susceptibility of various species and applied preventive measures are discussed. Further studies are needed to establish the interseasonal epizootiology of BT in Israel.