Vaccination induces broadly neutralizing antibody precursors to HIV gp41.

A key barrier to the development of vaccines that induce broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other viruses of high antigenic diversity is the design of priming immunogens that induce rare bnAb-precursor B cells. The high neutralization breadth of the HIV bnAb 10E8 makes elicitation of 10E8-class bnAbs desirable; however, the recessed epitope within gp41 makes envelope trimers poor priming immunogens and requires that 10E8-class bnAbs possess a long heavy chain complementarity determining region 3 (HCDR3) with a specific binding motif. We developed germline-targeting epitope scaffolds with affinity for 10E8-class precursors and engineered nanoparticles for multivalent display. Scaffolds exhibited epitope structural mimicry and bound bnAb-precursor human naive B cells in ex vivo screens, protein nanoparticles induced bnAb-precursor responses in stringent mouse models and rhesus macaques, and mRNA-encoded nanoparticles triggered similar responses in mice. Thus, germline-targeting epitope scaffold nanoparticles can elicit rare bnAb-precursor B cells with predefined binding specificities and HCDR3 features.

PLD3 and PLD4 are single-stranded acid exonucleases that regulate endosomal nucleic-acid sensing.

The sensing of microbial genetic material by leukocytes often elicits beneficial pro-inflammatory cytokines, but dysregulated responses can cause severe pathogenesis. Genome-wide association studies have linked the gene encoding phospholipase D3 (PLD3) to Alzheimer's disease and have linked PLD4 to rheumatoid arthritis and systemic sclerosis. PLD3 and PLD4 are endolysosomal proteins whose functions are obscure. Here, PLD4-deficient mice were found to have an inflammatory disease, marked by elevated levels of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and splenomegaly. These phenotypes were traced to altered responsiveness of PLD4-deficient dendritic cells to ligands of the single-stranded DNA sensor TLR9. Macrophages from PLD3-deficient mice also had exaggerated TLR9 responses. Although PLD4 and PLD3 were presumed to be phospholipases, we found that they are 5' exonucleases, probably identical to spleen phosphodiesterase, that break down TLR9 ligands. Mice deficient in both PLD3 and PLD4 developed lethal liver inflammation in early life, which indicates that both enzymes are needed to regulate inflammatory cytokine responses via the degradation of nucleic acids.

B cells expressing authentic naive human VRC01-class BCRs can be recruited to germinal centers and affinity mature in multiple independent mouse models.

Animal models of human antigen-specific B cell receptors (BCRs) generally depend on "inferred germline" sequences, and thus their relationship to authentic naive human B cell BCR sequences and affinities is unclear. Here, BCR sequences from authentic naive human VRC01-class B cells from healthy human donors were selected for the generation of three BCR knockin mice. The BCRs span the physiological range of affinities found in humans, and use three different light chains (VK3-20, VK1-5, and VK1-33) found among subclasses of naive human VRC01-class B cells and HIV broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs). The germline-targeting HIV immunogen eOD-GT8 60mer is currently in clinical trial as a candidate bnAb vaccine priming immunogen. To attempt to model human immune responses to the eOD-GT8 60mer, we tested each authentic naive human VRC01-class BCR mouse model under rare human physiological B cell precursor frequency conditions. B cells with high (HuGL18HL) or medium (HuGL17HL) affinity BCRs were primed, recruited to germinal centers, and they affinity matured, and formed memory B cells. Precursor frequency and affinity interdependently influenced responses. Taken together, these experiments utilizing authentic naive human VRC01-class BCRs validate a central tenet of germline-targeting vaccine design and extend the overall concept of the reverse vaccinology approach to vaccine development.

Efficient isolation of rare B cells using next-generation antigen barcoding.

The ability to efficiently isolate antigen-specific B cells in high throughput will greatly accelerate the discovery of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and catalyze rational vaccine development. Traditional mAb discovery is a costly and labor-intensive process, although recent advances in single-cell genomics using emulsion microfluidics allow simultaneous processing of thousands of individual cells. Here we present a streamlined method for isolation and analysis of large numbers of antigen-specific B cells, including next generation antigen barcoding and an integrated computational framework for B cell multi-omics. We demonstrate the power of this approach by recovering thousands of antigen-specific mAbs, including the efficient isolation of extremely rare precursors of VRC01-class and IOMA-class broadly neutralizing HIV mAbs.

Detection and activation of HIV broadly neutralizing antibody precursor B cells using anti-idiotypes.

Many tested vaccines fail to provide protection against disease despite the induction of antibodies that bind the pathogen of interest. In light of this, there is much interest in rationally designed subunit vaccines that direct the antibody response to protective epitopes. Here, we produced a panel of anti-idiotype antibodies able to specifically recognize the inferred germline version of the human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) broadly neutralizing antibody b12 (iglb12). We determined the crystal structure of two anti-idiotypes in complex with iglb12 and used these anti-idiotypes to identify rare naive human B cells expressing B cell receptors with similarity to iglb12. Immunization with a multimerized version of this anti-idiotype induced the proliferation of transgenic murine B cells expressing the iglb12 heavy chain in vivo, despite the presence of deletion and anergy within this population. Together, our data indicate that anti-idiotypes are a valuable tool for the study and induction of potentially protective antibodies.

HIV-1 VACCINES. Priming a broadly neutralizing antibody response to HIV-1 using a germline-targeting immunogen.

A major goal of HIV-1 vaccine research is the design of immunogens capable of inducing broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) that bind to the viral envelope glycoprotein (Env). Poor binding of Env to unmutated precursors of bnAbs, including those of the VRC01 class, appears to be a major problem for bnAb induction. We engineered an immunogen that binds to VRC01-class bnAb precursors and immunized knock-in mice expressing germline-reverted VRC01 heavy chains. Induced antibodies showed characteristics of VRC01-class bnAbs, including a short CDRL3 (light-chain complementarity-determining region 3) and mutations that favored binding to near-native HIV-1 gp120 constructs. In contrast, native-like immunogens failed to activate VRC01-class precursors. The results suggest that rational epitope design can prime rare B cell precursors for affinity maturation to desired targets.