Demographic, co-intoxicants and other characteristics of citalopram-involved overdose deaths.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) including citalopram are commonly used antidepressants that can be involved in drug-related deaths along with opioids and other substances. This study characterized citalopram involvement in West Virginia (WV) drug-related deaths compared to other SSRI and non-SSRI-related deaths. All 2005-2021 WV drug-related deaths were analyzed in this retrospective study. Demographics, other substances involved, and comorbidities in cases in which citalopram was listed on the death certificate were compared to other SSRI-related and total non-SSRI deaths. Citalopram concentrations and the association between citalopram presence with predicted fentanyl concentrations were determined. Citalopram was the most common antidepressant present in the deaths (4.5% of 14,363 total), with most (81%) unintentional. Male: female ratios in citalopram cases (0.9:1) were significantly lower than in non-SSRI deaths (2.3:1). Almost two-thirds of citalopram deaths had ≥ 4 substances involved compared to 26% of non-SSRI deaths. Overall, oxycodone was most frequently identified in citalopram deaths (fentanyl more commonly in recent years), followed by alprazolam and diazepam. Cardiovascular comorbidity was significantly more common in citalopram than non-SSRI deaths. No association was found between citalopram presence and predicted fentanyl concentrations. Most citalopram-related deaths were unintentional and involved proportionately more females, with larger numbers of concurrent substances present and more cardiovascular comorbidity compared to non-SSRI deaths. Citalopram is widely used and less toxic than many antidepressants. The extent to which it contributed to overdose deaths can be difficult to ascertain given the multiple substances usually present.

Contraception and Healthcare Utilization by Reproductive-Age Women Who Use Drugs in Rural Communities: a Cross-Sectional Survey.

BACKGROUND: Women who use drugs (WWUD) have low rates of contraceptive use and high rates of unintended pregnancy. Drug use is common among women in rural U.S. communities, with limited data on how they utilize reproductive, substance use disorder (SUD), and healthcare services. OBJECTIVE: We determined contraceptive use prevalence among WWUD in rural communities then compared estimates to women from similar rural areas. We investigated characteristics of those using contraceptives, and associations between contraceptive use and SUD treatment, healthcare utilization, and substance use. DESIGN: Rural Opioids Initiative (ROI) - cross-sectional survey using respondent-driven sampling (RDS) involving eight rural U.S. regions (January 2018-March 2020); National Survey on Family Growth (NSFG) - nationally-representative U.S. household reproductive health survey (2017-2019). PARTICIPANTS: Women aged 18-49 with prior 30-day non-prescribed opioid and/or non-opioid injection drug use; fecundity determined by self-reported survey responses. MAIN MEASURES: Unweighted and RDS-weighted prevalence estimates of medical/procedural contraceptive use; chi-squared tests and multi-level linear regressions to test associations. KEY RESULTS: Of 855 women in the ROI, 36.8% (95% CI 33.7-40.1, unweighted) and 38.6% (95% CI 30.7-47.2, weighted) reported contraceptive use, compared to 66% of rural women in the NSFG sample. Among the ROI women, 27% had received prior 30-day SUD treatment via outpatient counseling or inpatient program and these women had increased odds of contraceptive use (aOR 1.50 [95% CI 1.08-2.06]). There was a positive association between contraception use and recent medications for opioid use disorder (aOR 1.34 [95% CI 0.95-1.88]) and prior 6-month primary care utilization (aOR 1.32 [95% CI 0.96-1.82]) that did not meet the threshold for statistical significance. CONCLUSION: WWUD in rural areas reported low contraceptive use; those who recently received SUD treatment had greater odds of contraceptive use. Improvements are needed in expanding reproductive and preventive health within SUD treatment and primary care services in rural communities.

Impact of a Permitless Concealed Firearm Carry Law in West Virginia, 1999-2015 and 2016-2020.

We used firearm mortality and sales data to assess the impact of HB 4145, a May 2016 law that legalized concealed firearm carry without a permit in West Virginia. Firearm mortality was significantly higher (29%) in the years after the enactment of the law; handgun mortality was also higher (48% increase), whereas long gun deaths and firearm sales were unaffected. This may suggest that HB 4145 increased rates of firearm-related mortality in West Virginia without affecting firearm sales in the state. (Am J Public Health. 2023;113(11):1163-1166. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307382).

Characteristics of xylazine-related deaths in West Virginia-Xylazine-related deaths.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The involvement of xylazine, a veterinary drug, in West Virginia (WV) human drug-related deaths was examined. METHODS: WV drug deaths from 2019 (when xylazine was first identified) to mid-2021. Characteristics including toxicology findings were compared between xylazine and nonxylazine deaths. RESULTS: Of 3292 drug deaths, 117 involved xylazine, and the proportions of deaths with it have increased (1% [2019] to 5% [mid-2021)]. Xylazine decedents had more cointoxicants, with fentanyl (98%) predominant followed by methamphetamine. Xylazine decedents had a significantly greater history of drug or alcohol misuse and hepatic disease. CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: In one of the largest analyses of xylazine-involved deaths in a predominantly rural state, identification of xylazine was increasing with multiple cointoxicants (especially fentanyl), and was present in a few deaths with only one other substance involved. Health professionals should be aware of possible enhanced toxicity from xylazine ingestion especially since naloxone does not reverse xylazine's adverse effects.

Houselessness and syringe service program utilization among people who inject drugs in eight rural areas across the USA: a cross-sectional analysis.

BACKGROUND: Research conducted in urban areas has highlighted the impact of housing instability on people who inject drugs (PWID), revealing that it exacerbates vulnerability to drug-related harms and impedes syringe service program (SSP) use. However, few studies have explored the effects of houselessness on SSP use among rural PWID. This study examines the relationship between houselessness and SSP utilization among PWID in eight rural areas across 10 states. METHODS: PWID were recruited using respondent-driven sampling for a cross-sectional survey that queried self-reported drug use and SSP utilization in the prior 30 days, houselessness in the prior 6 months and sociodemographic characteristics. Using binomial logistic regression, we examined the relationship between experiencing houselessness and any SSP use. To assess the relationship between houselessness and the frequency of SSP use, we conducted multinomial logistic regression analyses among participants reporting any past 30-day SSP use. RESULTS: Among 2394 rural PWID, 56.5% had experienced houselessness in the prior 6 months, and 43.5% reported past 30-day SSP use. PWID who had experienced houselessness were more likely to report using an SSP compared to their housed counterparts (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.24 [95% confidence intervals [CI] 1.01, 1.52]). Among those who had used an SSP at least once (n = 972), those who experienced houselessness were just as likely to report SSP use two (aOR = 0.90 [95% CI 0.60, 1.36]) and three times (aOR = 1.18 [95% CI 0.77, 1.98]) compared to once. However, they were less likely to visit an SSP four or more times compared to once in the prior 30 days (aOR = 0.59 [95% CI 0.40, 0.85]). CONCLUSION: This study provides evidence that rural PWID who experience houselessness utilize SSPs at similar or higher rates as their housed counterparts. However, housing instability may pose barriers to more frequent SSP use. These findings are significant as people who experience houselessness are at increased risk for drug-related harms and encounter additional challenges when attempting to access SSPs.

Factors Associated with Non-Evidence-Based Overdose Responses among People Who Use Prescription Opioids Non-Medically in Rural Appalachia.

Background: Opioid-related overdose deaths recently accelerated. In response, overdose education and naloxone distribution (OEND) has been implemented widely, though access remains sparse in rural Appalachia. Despite increasing OEND, risk factors for non-evidence-based overdose responses among the training-naïve remain unknown. Methods: We enrolled 169 adults who use prescription opioids non-medically and reside in rural West Virginia (August 2014-March 2015). Participants were interviewed about witnessing overdose (lifetime and prior-year), characteristics of the most recent overdose, responses to the overdose, and OEND acceptability. Logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with non-evidence-based responses to overdose. Results: Among the 73 participants who witnessed an opioid-related overdose, the majority (n = 53, 73%) reported any non-evidence-based responses. Participants were significantly more likely to report a non-evidence-based response when victims were unresponsive (OR = 3.36; 95% CI = 1.07, 10.58). Common evidence-based responses included staying with the victim until help arrived (n = 66, 90%) and calling 911 (n = 63, 86%), while the most common non-evidence-based responses were hitting or slapping the victim (n = 37, 51%) and rubbing the victim with ice or placing them in a cold shower or bath (n = 14, 19%). While most (n = 60, 82%) had never heard of OEND, the majority (n = 69, 95%) were willing to train, particularly those reporting non-evidence-based responses (n = 52, 98%). Conclusions: These findings underscore the need to expand access to OEND in rural communities and indicate OEND is acceptable to training-naïve individuals who use opioids in rural Appalachia. Given the "harm reduction deserts" in the region, approaches to expand OEND should be pursued.

Fentanyl and other opioid involvement in methamphetamine-related deaths.

Background: Methamphetamine-related deaths have been rising along with those involving synthetic opioids, mostly fentanyl and fentanyl analogs (FAs). However, the extent to which methamphetamine involvement in deaths differs from those changes occurring in synthetic opioid involvement is unknown.Objectives: To determine the patterns and temporal changes in methamphetamine-related deaths with and without other drug involvement.Methods: Data from all methamphetamine-related deaths in West Virginia from 2013 to 2018 were analyzed. Quasi-Poisson regression analyses over time were conducted to compare the rates of change in death counts among methamphetamine and fentanyl//FA subgroups.Results: A total of 815 methamphetamine-related deaths were analyzed; 572 (70.2%) were male and 527 (64.7%) involved an opioid. The proportion of methamphetamine only deaths stayed relatively flat over time although the actual numbers of deaths increased. Combined fentanyl/FAs and methamphetamine were involved in 337 deaths (41.3%) and constituted the largest increase from 2013 to 2018. The modeling of monthly death counts in 2017-2018 found that the average number of deaths involving fentanyl without methamphetamine significantly declined (rate of change -0.025, p < .001), while concomitant fentanyl with methamphetamine and methamphetamine only death counts increased significantly (rate of change 0.056 and 0.057, respectively, p < .001).Conclusions: Fentanyl and FAs played an increasingly significant role in methamphetamine-related deaths. The accelerating number of deaths involving fentanyl/FAs and methamphetamine indicates the importance of stimulants and opioids in unintentional deaths. Comprehensive surveillance efforts should continue to track substance use patterns to ensure that appropriate prevention programs are undertaken.

Risk factors associated with driving under the influence of drugs in the USA.

BACKGROUND: Driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) is a burgeoning public health concern in the USA. Because little is known about individuals who engage in DUID, the purpose of this study was to analyse potential sociodemographic characteristics and behavioural risk factors associated with the behaviour. METHODS: Self-reported data from drivers ≥18 years of age who ever used drugs and participated in the 2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health were used. Characteristics of those who reported to engage and not engage in DUID were compared via frequencies, percentages and logistic regression analyses, which accounted for the multistage survey design. RESULTS: Among eligible respondents, 10.4% (weighted n=117 275 154) reported DUID. DUID was higher among those aged 18-25 year (34%), males (65%), unmarried individuals (61%), lesbian/gay/bisexuals (13%), those whom abused or were drug dependent (45%), engaged in numerous risky lifestyle behaviours (12%) and those taking medication for a mental health issue (22%). Nearly 20% and 6% of respondents engaged in DUID abused or were dependent on marijuana or methamphetamine, respectively. The adjusted odds of DUID were greatest among those 18-25 years of age (OR 3.7; 95% CI 2.8 to 5.0), those never/not married (OR 1.8; 95% CI 1.5 to 2.2), those who abused or were drug dependent (OR 4.0; 95% CI 3.5 to 4.7), exhibited riskier lifestyle behaviours (OR 8.0; 95% CI 5.9 to 11.0), were employed (OR 1.3; 95% CI 1.1 to 1.6) or lesbian/gay/bisexuals (OR 1.4; 95% CI 1.1 to 1.7). CONCLUSIONS: DUID was common among some population sub-groups who may benefit from intervention.

Impact of a vaccine intervention on county-level rates of acute hepatitis B in West Virginia, 2011-2018.

The rate of acute hepatitis B in West Virginia (WV) has been increasing since 2006. To reduce new infections, WV implemented a vaccine intervention (WV Pilot Project), which provided over 10,000 doses of hepatitis B vaccine to at-risk adults in 18 counties. The objectives of this study were to describe yearly changes in acute hepatitis B incidence and assess county-level impact of the WV Pilot Project using geospatial methods. County rates of acute hepatitis B and vaccine doses per 100,000 population were visualized biannually from 2011 to 2018. Local indicators of spatial autocorrelation were used to detect county-level clustering. Significant differences in the median rate of acute hepatitis B pre and post intervention in counties receiving vaccine were evaluated using Wilcoxon signed-rank test and bootstrapping. A Bland-Altman graph visualized significant differences in county-level rates of acute hepatitis B before and after the WV Pilot Project compared to the statewide estimate. Analyses identified significant geographic clustering of acute hepatitis B in southern WV across all four time-periods. Nine of the 18 (50%) counties receiving vaccine had significant declines in acute hepatitis B incidence compared to the statewide mean difference estimate. Findings suggest that increased dissemination of hepatitis B vaccine through local health departments and existing harm reduction services can reduce the incidence of acute hepatitis B in states such as WV, which have been disproportionately affected by substance misuse.

Association of Alcohol With Mortality After Traumatic Brain Injury.

Although alcohol exposure results in reduced mortality after traumatic brain injury (TBI) in animal models, clinical trials based on proposed mechanisms have been disappointing and have reported conflicting results. Methodological issues common to many of these clinical studies may have contributed to the spurious results. Our objective was to evaluate the association between blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and in-hospital mortality after TBI, and overcome methodological problems of prior studies. We conducted a retrospective cohort study on individuals treated for isolated TBI (n = 1,084) at the R Adams Cowley Shock Trauma Center (Baltimore, Maryland) from 1997 to 2012. We excluded individuals with injury to other body regions and examined multiple cutpoints of BAC. Our primary outcome was in-hospital mortality. In adjusted logistic regression models, the upper level of each blood alcohol categorization from 0.10 g/dL (odds ratio = 0.63, 95% confidence interval: 0.40, 0.97) through 0.30 g/dL (odds ratio = 0.25, 95% confidence interval: 0.08, 0.84) was associated with reduced risk of mortality after TBI compared with individuals with undetectable BAC. In sensitivity analyses among individuals without penetrating brain injuries (95% firearm-related) (n = 899), the protective association was eliminated. This study provides evidence that the observed protective association between BAC and in-hospital mortality after TBI resulted from bias introduced by inclusion of penetrating injuries.

Repeat lactate level predicts mortality better than rate of clearance.

BACKGROUND: Lactate clearance has been developed into a marker of resuscitation in trauma, but no study has compared the predictive power of the various clearance calculations. Our objective was to determine which method of calculating lactate clearance best predicted 24-hour and in-hospital mortality after injury. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective chart review of patients admitted to a Level-1 trauma center directly from the scene of injury from 2010 to 2013 who survived >15min, had an elevated lactate at admission (≥3mmol/L), followed by another measurement within 24h of admission. Lactate clearance was calculated using five models: actual value of the repeat level, absolute clearance, relative clearance, absolute rate, and relative rate. Models were compared using the areas under the respective receiver operating curves (AUCs), with an endpoint of death at 24h and in-hospital mortality. RESULTS: 3910 patients had an elevated admission lactate concentration on admission (mean=5.6±3.0mmol/L) followed by a second measurement (2.7±1.8mmol/L). Repeat absolute measurement best predicted 24-hour (AUC=0.85, 95% CI: 0.84-0.86) and in-hospital death (AUC=0.77; 95% CI, 0.76-0.78). Relative clearance was the best model of lactate clearance (AUC=0.77, 95% CI: 0.75-0.78 and AUC=0.705, 95% CI: 0.69-72, respectively) (p<0.0001 for each). A sensitivity analysis using a range of initial lactate measures yielded similar results. CONCLUSIONS: The absolute value of the repeat lactate measurement had the greatest ability to predict mortality in injured patients undergoing resuscitation.

Mortality and Associated Morbidities Following Traumatic Brain Injury in Older Medicare Statin Users.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between posttraumatic brain injury statin use and (1) mortality and (2) the incidence of associated morbidities, including stroke, depression, and Alzheimer's disease and related dementias following injury. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Nested cohort of all Medicare beneficiaries 65 years of age and older who survived a traumatic brain injury (TBI) hospitalization during 2006 through 2010. The final sample comprised 100 515 beneficiaries. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study of older Medicare beneficiaries. Relative risks (RR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were obtained using discrete time analysis and generalized estimating equations. MEASURES: The exposure of interest included monthly atorvastatin, fluvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, and simvastatin use. Outcomes of interest included mortality, stroke, depression, and Alzheimer's disease and related dementias. RESULTS: Statin use of any kind was associated with decreased mortality following TBI hospitalization discharge. Any statin use was also associated with a decrease in any stroke (RR, 0.86; 95% confidence intervals (CI), 0.81-0.91), depression (RR, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.79-0.90), and Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (RR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.73-0.81). CONCLUSION: These findings provide valuable information for clinicians treating older adults with TBI as clinicians can consider, when appropriate, atorvastatin and simvastatin to older adults with TBI in order to decrease mortality and associated morbidities.

Trauma Recidivism Predicts Long-term Mortality: Missed Opportunities for Prevention (Retrospective Cohort Study).

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to determine the association between recurrent trauma admissions (recidivism) and subsequent long-term mortality, and to identify those in most need for preventive interventions. BACKGROUND: Patients with a single intentional injury have been shown to have a higher risk of future injury mortality than those with unintentional injury with 5-year mortality rates as high as 20% being reported for recurrent penetrating trauma. Trauma recidivism identifies a high-risk population, but its association with long-term mortality is largely unknown. METHODS: Patients with 1 or more previous admissions to an urban trauma center (recidivists) were identified and compared with those with single admissions (nonrecidivists) from 1997 to 2008. The trauma registry was linked to the National Death Index to determine both the cause and time to death after hospital discharge. Statistical analysis included chi-square tests, Kaplan-Meier survival curves, and Cox proportional-hazards models. RESULTS: Trauma recidivists were 7% of the total trauma population from 1997 to 2008, representing 3147 patients. Recidivists were more likely to be male (P < 0.0001), Black (P < 0.0001), have a blood alcohol content above 80 mg/dL (P < 0.0001), and suffer a penetrating injury (P < 0.0001) compared with nonrecidivists. Recidivists with both initial blunt and penetrating injuries had higher rates of long-term mortality after discharge. Recidivists were more likely to die of any cause based on Cox proportional-hazard ratios [hazard ratio (HR) 1.77, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.57-2.01], injury death (HR 2.02, 95% CI 1.66-2.47), and disease death (HR 1.65, 95% CI 1.41-1.92) than nonrecidivists. CONCLUSIONS: Male sex, Black race, and elevated blood alcohol content and penetrating injury are associated with trauma recidivism which leads to a higher risk of death. There is a critical public health need to develop interventions to reduce trauma recidivism and preventable death.

Cut-Point Levels of Phosphatidylethanol to Identify Alcohol Misuse in a Mixed Cohort Including Critically Ill Patients.

BACKGROUND: Although alcohol misuse is associated with deleterious outcomes in critically ill patients, its detection by either self-report or examination of biomarkers is difficult to obtain consistently. Phosphatidylethanol (PEth) is a direct alcohol biomarker that can characterize alcohol consumption patterns; however, its diagnostic accuracy in identifying misuse in critically ill patients is unknown. METHODS: PEth values were obtained in a mixed cohort comprising 122 individuals from medical and burn intensive care units (n = 33), alcohol detoxification unit (n = 51), and healthy volunteers (n = 38). Any alcohol misuse and severe misuse were referenced by Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and AUDIT-C scores separately. Mixed-effects logistic regression analysis was performed, and the discrimination of PEth was evaluated using the area under the receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curve. RESULTS: The area under the ROC curve for PEth was 0.927 (95% CI: 0.877, 0.977) for any misuse and 0.906 (95% CI: 0.850, 0.962) for severe misuse defined by AUDIT. By AUDIT-C, the area under the ROC curves was 0.948 (95% CI: 0.910, 0.956) for any misuse and 0.913 (95% CI: 0.856, 0.971) for severe misuse. The PEth cut-points of ≥250 and ≥400 ng/ml provided optimal discrimination for any misuse and severe misuse, respectively. The positive predictive value for ≥250 ng/ml was 88.7% (95% CI: 77.5, 95.0), and the negative predictive value was 86.7% (95% CI: 74.9, 93.7). PEth ≥ 400 ng/ml achieved similar values, and similar results were shown for AUDIT-C. In a subgroup analysis of critically ill patients only, test characteristics were similar to the mixed cohort. CONCLUSIONS: PEth is a strong predictor and has good discrimination for any and severe alcohol misuse in a mixed cohort that includes critically ill patients. Cut-points at 250 ng/ml for any, and 400 ng/ml for severe, are favorable. External validation will be required to establish these cut-points in critically ill patients.

Psychotropic Medication Use among Medicare Beneficiaries Following Traumatic Brain Injury.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize psychotropic medication use before and after traumatic brain injury (TBI) hospitalization among older adults. A secondary objective is to determine how receipt of indicated pharmacologic treatment for anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) differs following TBI. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort. SETTING: United States. PARTICIPANTS: Medicare beneficiaries aged ≥65 years hospitalized with TBI between 2006 and 2010 with continuous drug coverage for 12 months before and after TBI (N = 60,276). MEASUREMENTS: We obtained monthly psychotropic medication use by drug class and specific drugs from Medicare Part D drug event files.ICD-9 codes were used to define anxiety (300.0x) and PTSD (309.81). RESULTS: Average monthly prevalence of psychotropic medication use among all patients hospitalized for TBI was 44.8%; antidepressants constituted 73%. Prevalence of psychotropic medication use increased from 2006 to 2010. Following TBI, psychotropic medication use increased slightly (OR: 1.05; 95% CI: 1.03, 1.06.) Tricyclic antidepressant use decreased post-TBI (OR: 0.76; 95% CI: 0.73, 0.79) whereas use of the sedating antidepressants mirtazapine (OR: 1.31; 95% CI: 1.25, 1.37) and trazadone (OR: 1.11; 95% CI: 1.06, 1.17) increased. Antipsychotic (OR: 1.15; 95% CI: 1.12, 1.19) use also increased post-TBI. Beneficiaries newly diagnosed with anxiety (OR: 0.42; 95% CI: 0.36, 0.48) and/or PTSD (OR: 0.39; 95% CI: 0.18, 0.84) post-TBI were less likely to receive indicated pharmacologic treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Older adults hospitalized with TBI have a high prevalence of psychotropic medication use yet are less likely to receive indicated pharmacological treatment for newly diagnosed anxiety and PTSD following TBI.

Anxiety and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Among Medicare Beneficiaries After Traumatic Brain Injury.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate rates of anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnoses after traumatic brain injury (TBI) among Medicare beneficiaries, quantify the increase in rates relative to the pre-TBI period, and identify risk factors for diagnosis of anxiety and PTSD. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 96 881 Medicare beneficiaries hospitalized with TBI between June 1, 2006 and May 31, 2010. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. MEASURES: Diagnosis of anxiety (International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification [ICD-9-CM] codes 300.0x) and/or PTSD (ICD-9-CM code 309.81). RESULTS: After TBI, 16 519 (17%) beneficiaries were diagnosed with anxiety and 269 (0.3%) were diagnosed with PTSD. Rates of anxiety and PTSD diagnoses were highest in the first 5 months post-TBI and decreased over time. Pre-TBI diagnosis of anxiety disorder was significantly associated with post-TBI anxiety (risk ratio, 3.55; 95% confidence interval, 3.42-3.68) and pre-TBI diagnosis of PTSD was significantly associated with post-TBI PTSD (risk ratio 70.09; 95% confidence interval 56.29-111.12). CONCLUSION: This study highlights the increased risk of anxiety and PTSD after TBI. Routine screening for anxiety and PTSD, especially during the first 5 months after TBI, may help clinicians identify these important and treatable conditions, especially among patients with a history of psychiatric illness.

Treatment Charges for Traumatic Brain Injury Among Older Adults at a Trauma Center.

OBJECTIVE: To provide charge estimates of treatment for traumatic brain injury (TBI), including both hospital and physician charges, among adults 65 years and older treated at a trauma center. METHODS: We identified older adults treated for TBI during 2008-2012 (n = 1843) at Maryland's Primary Adult Resource Center and obtained hospital and physician charges separately. Analyses were stratified by sex and all charges were inflated to 2012 dollars. Total TBI charges were modeled as a function of covariates using a generalized linear model. RESULTS: Women comprised 48% of the sample. The mean unadjusted total TBI hospitalization charge for adults 65 years and older was $36 075 (standard deviation, $63 073). Physician charges comprised 15% of total charges. Adjusted mean charges were lower in women than in men (adjusted difference, -$894; 95% confidence interval, -$277 to -$1512). Length of hospital and intensive care unit stay were associated with the highest charges. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides the first estimates of hospital and physician charges associated with hospitalization for TBI among older adults at a trauma center that will aid in resource allocation, triage decisions, and healthcare policy.

Patterns of Statin Use in Older Medicare Beneficiaries With Traumatic Brain Injury.

BACKGROUND: In addition to lowering lipids, statins also may be beneficial for older adults sustaining a traumatic brain injury (TBI), as statin use prior to and following trauma may decrease mortality following injury. However, despite statins' potential to reduce mortality, there is limited research regarding statin use among older adults. OBJECTIVE: To characterize and investigate factors associated with statin use among older adults with TBI. METHODS: A retrospective drug utilization study was used to characterize statin use among Medicare beneficiaries 65 and older hospitalized with a TBI during 2006 to 2010 and with continuous Medicare Parts A, B, and D coverage 6 months prior and 12 months following TBI. Logistic regression was used to investigate the factors associated with statin use. The exposure of interest was statin use prior to and following TBI. RESULTS: Of the 75 698 beneficiaries included in the study, 37 874 (~50%) of beneficiaries used a statin at least once during the study period. The most common statin used was simvastatin, while fluvastatin was the least used statin. Statin users were more likely to have cardiovascular diseases when compared to nonusers. Hyperlipidemia was a major factor associated with statin use and had the greatest impact on statin use compared to nonuse (odds ratio = 9.54; 95% confidence interval = 9.07, 10.03). CONCLUSIONS: This national sample of older adults with TBI suggests that statins are commonly used. Future studies must next examine the impact of statin use on mortality and secondary injury in order to shape pharmacological therapy guidelines following TBI.

In-Hospital Mortality Following Traumatic Brain Injury Among Older Medicare Beneficiaries, Comparing Statin Users With Nonusers.

BACKGROUND: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a significant public health concern for older adults. Small-scale human studies have suggested pre-TBI statin use is associated with decreased in-hospital mortality following TBI, highlighting the need for large-scale translational research. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between pre-TBI statin use and in-hospital mortality following TBI. METHODS: A retrospective study of Medicare beneficiaries 65 and older hospitalized with a TBI during 2006 to 2010 was conducted to assess the impact of pre-TBI statin use on in-hospital mortality following TBI. Exposure of interest included atorvastatin, fluvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, and simvastatin. Beneficiaries were classified as current, recent, past, and nonusers of statins prior to TBI. The outcome of interest was in-hospital mortality. Logistic regression was used to obtain odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) comparing current, recent, and prior statin use to nonuse. RESULTS: Most statin users were classified as current users (90%). Current atorvastatin (OR = 0.88; 95% = CI 0.82, 0.96), simvastatin (OR = 0.84; 95% CI = 0.79, 0.91), and rosuvastatin (OR = 0.79; 95% CI = 0.67, 0.94) use were associated with a significant decrease in the risk of in-hospital mortality following TBI. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to being the most used statins, current use of atorvastatin, rosuvastatin, and simvastatin was associated with a significant decrease in in-hospital mortality following TBI among older adults. Future research must include clinical trials to help exclude the possibility of a healthy user effect in order to better understand the impact of statin use on in-hospital mortality following TBI.