Changes to the Contour Length, Molecular Chain Length, and Solid-State Structures of Nanocellulose Resulting from Sonication in Water.

Sonication in water reduced the average contour lengths of nanocellulose prepared from wood cellulose fiber and microcrystalline cellulose. Most of the kinks in the wood cellulose nanofibrils were formed during the initial 10 min of sonication. Fragmentation occurred at the kinks and rigid segments associated with depolymerization during subsequent sonication for 10-120 min, resulting in the formation of cellulose nanocrystals with low aspect ratios. Solid-state cross-polarization magic angle sample spinning 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance revealed that the original crystalline regions of the cellulose were partly transformed to fibril surfaces or disordered regions by both pretreatment and the subsequent fragmentation of molecular chains during sonication. The nanocellulose prepared from microcrystalline cellulose had different fragmentation behavior with regard to molecular chain length following sonication. The results indicated that on average the hexagonal 36 cellulose chain structure formed the cross-section of each wood cellulose microfibril.

Formation of nanosized islands of dialkyl ß-ketoester bonds for efficient hydrophobization of a cellulose film surface.

The efficient hydrophobization mechanism of a hydrophilic cellulose film surface with alkylketene dimer (AKD) was studied in terms of formation of ß-ketoester bonds at AKD/cellulose interfaces and their nanosized distribution analysis. AKD-treated cellulose and nanocellulose films were sequentially extracted with chloroform, hot water, and dioxane/water. Atomic force microscopy and high-resolution secondary-ion mass spectrometry were used to analyze the surface structures of the AKD-treated cellulose films and those after the sequential extraction. The results showed that the AKD molecules had melted and transformed into spherical nanoparticles, ∼37 nm in diameter, on the film surface during heat treatment, forming "sea/island"-like structures; the film surface projection area comprised 99% hydrophilic cellulose and 1% hydrophobic AKD nanoparticles. Determination of the AKD contents in the films revealed that an extremely small amount of AKD/cellulose ß-ketoester bonds were likely to form at the AKD/cellulose interfaces during heating, clearly contributing to the hydrophobic nature of the sequentially extracted cellulose films.

Compositional changes of human hair melanin resulting from bleach treatment investigated by nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: It is important to understand the influence of bleach treatment on human hair because it is one of the most important chemical treatments in hair cosmetic processes. A comparison of the elemental composition of melanin between virgin hair and bleached hair would provide important information about the structural changes of melanin. To investigate the elemental composition of melanin granules in virgin black hair and bleached hair, these hair cross-sections are analyzed by using a nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS). METHODS: The virgin black hair and bleached hair samples were embedded in resin and smooth hair cross-sections were obtained using an ultramicrotome. NanoSIMS measurements were performed using a Cs(+) primary ion beam to detect negative secondary ions. RESULTS: More intensive (16) O(-) ions were detected from the melanin granules of bleached hair than from those of virgin black hair in NanoSIMS (16) O(-) ion image. In addition, it was indicated that (16) O(-) ion intensity and (16) O(-) /(12) C(14) N(-) ion intensity ratio of melanin granules in bleached hair were higher than those in virgin black hair. CONCLUSION: Nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry analysis of the cross-sections of virgin black hair and bleached hair indicated that the oxygen content in melanin granules was increased by bleach treatment.

Structural analyses of supernatant fractions in TEMPO-oxidized pulp/water reaction mixtures separated by centrifugation and dialysis.

Side reactions occurring on cellulose during 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical (TMEPO)-catalyzed oxidation have not been considered to be significant. Then, TEMPO-oxidized hardwood and softwood bleached kraft pulps (HBKP and SBKP) were prepared with an excess NaOCl·5H2O. Supernatant fractions (SFs) were obtained in the aqueous reaction mixtures of TEMPO-oxidized pulps by centrifugation and dialysis. The SFs with carboxyl contents of 5.0 and 4.2 mmol/g were obtained in the yields of 19 % and 30 % from HBKP and SBKP, respectively. These carboxy contents are much higher than those (2.6-2.7 mmol/g) of the precipitate fractions in the TEMPO-oxidized pulps. Solid-state 13C NMR spectra and other analyses revealed that the water-soluble ß-(1 â†’ 4)-polyglucuronic acids were predominantly present in the SFs. In addition, water-insoluble TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanocrystals were present in the SFs, but they constituted less than ~10 % of the SFs. The mass-average degrees of polymerization (DPw) of the SFs obtained from HBKP and SBKP were 166 and 155, respectively, whereas the original HBKP and SBKP had DPw values of 1990 and 2140, respectively. These substantial depolymerization and formation of the water-soluble ß-(1 â†’ 4)-polyglucuronic acids occur on cellulose and oxidized cellulose molecules as side reactions during TEMPO-catalyzed oxidation, which should be considered for structural analyses of TEMPO-oxidized products.

Correction to "Comprehensive Study of Preparation of Carboxy Group-Containing Cellulose Fibers from Dry-Lap Kraft Pulps by Catalytic Oxidation with Solid NaOCl".

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c04750.].

Polyglucuronic acids prepared from α-(1 → 3)-glucan by TEMPO-catalytic oxidation.

2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical (TEMPO)-catalytic oxidation was applied to a water-insoluble α-(1 â†’ 3)-glucan in water at pH 10 and room temperature (∼24 °C), with solid NaOCl·5H2O as the primary oxidant. Oxidation with NaOCl at 15 mmol/g gave a water-soluble TEMPO-oxidized product at a mass recovery ratio of 97 %. The carboxy content of the TEMPO-oxidized product was 5.3 mmol/g, which corresponds to a degree of C6-oxidation (DO) of 93 %. A new water-soluble α-(1 â†’ 3)-polyglucuronic acid with a nearly homogeneous chemical structure was therefore quantitatively obtained. X-ray diffraction and solid-state 13C NMR spectroscopic analyses showed that the original α-(1 â†’ 3)-glucan and its TEMPO-oxidized product with a carboxy content of 5.3 mmol/g had crystalline structures, whereas the oxidized products with DOs of 50 % and 66 % had almost disordered structures. The carboxy groups in the oxidized products were regioselectively methyl esterified with trimethylsilyl diazomethane, and analyzed by using size-exclusion chromatography with multi-angle laser-light scattering and refractive index detections. The results show that the original α-(1 â†’ 3)-glucan and its oxidized products with DOs of 50 %, 66 %, and 93 % had weight-average degrees of polymerization of 671, 288, 54, and 45, respectively. Substantial depolymerization of the α-(1 â†’ 3)-glucan molecules therefore occurred during catalytic oxidation, irrespective of the oxidation pH.

ß-(1 → 4)-Polyglucuronic acids with C2/C3-ketones prepared from regenerated cellulose by catalytic oxidation using solid NaOCl·5H2O.

Three commercial regenerated cellulose samples were subjected to TEMPO-catalyzed oxidation using solid NaOCl·5H2O as the primary oxidant for structural analyses of the oxidized products (TEMPO = 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl). The regenerated cellulose/water slurries became transparent solutions after oxidation for 60 min. The yields of the oxidized products were almost 100 % when they were isolated as precipitates in ethanol/water mixtures. The solution-state NMR spectra revealed that the oxidized products were almost pure water-soluble ß-(1 â†’ 4)-polyglucuronic acids; the reaction conditions described herein ensured the complete oxidation of the C6-OH groups in the regenerated cellulose samples to C6-carboxy groups. However, the solid-state 13C NMR spectra of the oxidized products indicated that C2/C3-ketones (<20 % of the total units) were formed during side reactions, which is characteristic for oxidized products prepared from regenerated cellulose with the C2/C3-glycol structure. These ketones were likely to form intermolecular hemiacetal linkages in the oxidized products. During conductivity titration of the oxidized products, it is necessary to control the sample masses to accurately determine the carboxy contents. The mass-average degree of polymerization decreased from 330 to 890 for the original regenerated cellulose samples to 65-79 for the oxidized products; substantial depolymerization is inevitable during TEMPO-catalyzed oxidation of the regenerated cellulose samples.

Formation of highly twisted ribbons in a carboxymethylcellulase gene-disrupted strain of a cellulose-producing bacterium.

Cellulases are enzymes that normally digest cellulose; however, some are known to play essential roles in cellulose biosynthesis. Although some endogenous cellulases of plants and cellulose-producing bacteria are reportedly involved in cellulose production, their functions in cellulose production are unknown. In this study, we demonstrated that disruption of the cellulase (carboxymethylcellulase) gene causes irregular packing of de novo-synthesized fibrils in Gluconacetobacter xylinus, a cellulose-producing bacterium. Cellulose production was remarkably reduced and small amounts of particulate material were accumulated in the culture of a cmcax-disrupted G. xylinus strain (F2-2). The particulate material was shown to contain cellulose by both solid-state (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance analysis and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis. Electron microscopy revealed that the cellulose fibrils produced by the F2-2 cells were highly twisted compared with those produced by control cells. This hypertwisting of the fibrils may reduce cellulose synthesis in the F2-2 strains.

Superior reinforcement effect of TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibrils in polystyrene matrix: optical, thermal, and mechanical studies.

Polystyrene (PS) composites reinforced with 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO)-oxidized cellulose nanofibrils (TOCNs) with various weight ratios were fabricated by casting and vacuum-drying mixtures of PS/N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) solution and TOCN/DMF dispersion. TOCNs of 3 to 4 nm width were dispersed homogeneously at the individual nanofibril level in the PS matrix, such that the TOCN/PS nanocomposite films exhibited high optical transparencies and their tensile strengths, elastic moduli, and thermal dimensional stabilities increased with increasing TOCN content. Dynamic mechanical analysis showed that the storage modulus of the TOCN/PS films increased significantly with TOCN content above the glass-transition temperature of PS by the formation of an interfibrillar network structure of TOCNs in the PS matrix, based on percolation theory. The outstanding and effective polymer reinforcement by TOCNs results from their high aspect ratio, high crystallinity, and nanodispersibility in the PS matrix.

Use of ionic liquid for X-ray micro-CT specimen preparation of imbibed seeds.

X-ray micro-CT is one of the most useful techniques to examine 3D cellular architecture inside dry seeds. However, the examination of imbibed seeds is difficult because immersion in water causes a decline in the image quality. Here, we examined the use of ionic liquids for specimen preparation of chemically fixed imbibed seeds of Arabidopsis. We found that treatment with high concentrations of ionic liquids after osmium tetroxide fixation helped not only to prevent the structural damage caused by seed shrinkage, but also to preserve the image quality. Under these conditions, the cellular architecture of seeds was also well maintained.

Immunoelectron Microscopy of Cryofixed and Freeze-Substituted Plant Tissues.

Cryofixation and freeze-substitution techniques provide excellent preservation of plant ultrastructure. The advantage of cryofixation is not only in structural preservation, as seen in the smooth plasma membrane, but also in the speed in arresting cell activity. Immunoelectron microscopy reveals the subcellular localization of molecules within cells. Immunolabeling in combination with cryofixation and freeze-substitution techniques provides more detailed information on the immunoelectron-microscopic localization of molecules in the plant cell than can be obtained from chemically fixed tissues. Here, we introduce methods for immunoelectron microscopy of cryofixed and freeze-substituted plant tissues.

Single microfilaments mediate the early steps of microtubule bundling during preprophase band formation in onion cotyledon epidermal cells.

The preprophase band (PPB) is a cytokinetic apparatus that determines the site of cell division in plants. It originates as a broad band of microtubules (MTs) in G2 and narrows to demarcate the future division site during late prophase. Studies with fluorescent probes have shown that PPBs contain F-actin during early stages of their development but become actin depleted in late prophase. Although this suggests that actins contribute to the early stages of PPB formation, how actins contribute to PPB-MT organization remains unsolved. To address this question, we used electron tomography to investigate the spatial relationship between microfilaments (MFs) and MTs at different stages of PPB assembly in onion cotyledon epidermal cells. We demonstrate that the PPB actins observed by fluorescence microscopy correspond to short, single MFs. A majority of the MFs are bound to MTs, with a subset forming MT-MF-MT bridging structures. During the later stages of PPB assembly, the MF-mediated links between MTs are displaced by MT-MT linkers as the PPB MT arrays mature into tightly packed MT bundles. On the basis of these observations, we propose that the primary function of actins during PPB formation is to mediate the initial bundling of the PPB MTs.

Highly tough and transparent layered composites of nanocellulose and synthetic silicate.

A highly tough and transparent film material was prepared from synthetic saponite (SPN) nanoplatelets of low aspect ratios and nanofibrillar cellulose. The nanofibrillar cellulose was chemically modified by topological surface oxidation using 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyl-1-oxyl (TEMPO) as a catalyst. Both synthetic SPN nanoplatelets and TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibrils (TOCNs) have abundant negative charges in high densities on their surfaces and are dispersed in water at the individual nanoelement level. Layered nanocomposite structures of the SPN nanoplatelets and TOCNs were formed through a simple cast-drying process of the mixed aqueous dispersions. The TOCN/SPN composites with 0-50% w/w SPN content were optically transparent. Mechanical properties of the TOCN/SPN composites varied depending on the SPN content. The composite with 10% w/w SPN content (5.6% volume fraction) exhibited characteristic mechanical properties: Young's modulus of 14 GPa, tensile strength of 420 MPa, and strain-to-failure of 10%. The work of fracture of the composites increased from 4 to 30 MJ m(-3)- or by more than 700%--as the SPN content was increased from 0 to 10% w/w. This surprising improvement in toughness was interpreted based on a model for fracture of polymer composites reinforced with low-aspect-ratio platelets.

Micro-CT observations of the 3D distribution of calcium oxalate crystals in cotyledons during maturation and germination in Lotus miyakojimae seeds.

The cotyledon of legume seeds is a storage organ that provides nutrients for seed germination and seedling growth. The spatial and temporal control of the degradation processes within cotyledons has not been elucidated. Calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystals, a common calcium deposit in plants, have often been reported to be present in legume seeds. In this study, micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) was employed at the SPring-8 facility to examine the three-dimensional distribution of crystals inside cotyledons during seed maturation and germination of Lotus miyakojimae (previously Lotus japonicus accession Miyakojima MG-20). Using this technique, we could detect the outline of the embryo, void spaces in seeds and the cotyledon venation pattern. We found several sites that strongly inhibited X-ray transmission within the cotyledons. Light and polarizing microscopy confirmed that these areas corresponded to CaOx crystals. Three-dimensional observations of dry seeds indicated that the CaOx crystals in the L. miyakojimae cotyledons were distributed along lateral veins; however, their distribution was limited to the abaxial side of the procambium. The CaOx crystals appeared at stage II (seed-filling stage) of seed development, and their number increased in dry seeds. The number of crystals in cotyledons was high during germination, suggesting that CaOx crystals are not degraded for their calcium supply. Evidence for the conservation of CaOx crystals in cotyledons during the L. miyakojimae germination process was also supported by the biochemical measurement of oxalic acid levels.

The effect of adding silica to zirconia to counteract zirconia's tendency to degrade at low temperatures.

Yttria-based zirconia material (Y-TZP) widely used in dentistry, may degrade in a humid, low-temperature environment such as that in the oral cavity. The aim of this study was to compare the degradation of a new silica doped Y-TZP material with that of conventional Y-TZP by using accelerated aging tests at 200°C. The results of the accelerated tests revealed that after 50 hours of aging, the conventional Y-TZP samples had damaged surfaces that were weakened by 50 to 60%, while the silica-doped Y-TZP samples were only weakened by less than 20%. The monoclinic content of the conventional Y-TZP samples increased substantially to 62.7%, however, that of silica-doped Y-TZP samples was 18.9% after 5 hours of aging. It was concluded that a new type of silica-doped Y-TZP, created by adding a small amount of silica to Y-TZP, will be more resistant to low temperature degradation than conventional Y-TZP.

Immunoelectron microscopy of cryofixed and freeze-substituted plant tissues.

Cryofixation and freeze-substitution techniques preserve plant ultrastructure much better than conventional chemical fixation techniques. The advantage of cryofixation is not only in structural preservation, as seen in the smooth plasma membrane, but also in the speed in arresting cell activity. Immunoelectron microscopy reveals the subcellular localization of molecules within cells. Immunolabeling in combination with cryofixation and freeze-substitution techniques provides more detailed information on the immunoelectron-microscopic localization of molecules in the plant cell than can be obtained from chemically fixed tissues. Here, we introduce methods for immunoelectron microscopy of post-embedded, cryofixed plant tissues by applying an antibody to a thin plastic resin-embedded section prepared by cryofixation followed by freeze-substitution.

Xyloglucan for generating tensile stress to bend tree stem.

In response to environmental variation, angiosperm trees bend their stems by forming tension wood, which consists of a cellulose-rich G (gelatinous)-layer in the walls of fiber cells and generates abnormal tensile stress in the secondary xylem. We produced transgenic poplar plants overexpressing several endoglycanases to reduce each specific polysaccharide in the cell wall, as the secondary xylem consists of primary and secondary wall layers. When placed horizontally, the basal regions of stems of transgenic poplars overexpressing xyloglucanase alone could not bend upward due to low strain in the tension side of the xylem. In the wild-type plants, xyloglucan was found in the inner surface of G-layers during multiple layering. In situ xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (XET) activity showed that the incorporation of whole xyloglucan, potentially for wall tightening, began at the inner surface layers S1 and S2 and was retained throughout G-layer development, while the incorporation of xyloglucan heptasaccharide (XXXG) for wall loosening occurred in the primary wall of the expanding zone. We propose that the xyloglucan network is reinforced by XET to form a further connection between wall-bound and secreted xyloglucans in order to withstand the tensile stress created within the cellulose G-layer microfibrils.

Isolation of putative glycoprotein gene from early somatic embryo of carrot and its possible involvement in somatic embryo development.

Somatic embryogenesis is a unique process in plant cells. For example, embryogenic cells (EC) of carrot (Daucus carota) maintained in a medium containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) regenerate whole plants via somatic embryogenesis after the depletion of 2,4-D. Although some genes such as C-ABI3 and C-LEC1 have been found to be involved in somatic embryogenesis, the critical molecular and cellular mechanisms for somatic embryogenesis are unknown. To characterize the early mechanism in the induction of somatic embryogenesis, we isolated genes expressed during the early stage of somatic embryogenesis after 2,4-D depletion. Subtractive hybridization screening and subsequent RNA gel blot analysis suggested a candidate gene, Carrot Early Somatic Embryogenesis 1 (C-ESE1). C-ESE1 encodes a protein that has agglutinin and S-locus-glycoprotein domains and its expression is highly specific to primordial cells of somatic embryo. Transgenic carrot cells with reduced expression of C-ESE1 had wide intercellular space and decreased polysaccharides on the cell surface and showed delayed development in somatic embryogenesis. The importance of cell-to-cell attachment in somatic embryogenesis is discussed.