Alignment of ordinal and quantitative species abundance and size indices for the detection of shifting baseline syndrome.

Loss of knowledge about historical environmental conditions and species' abundances threatens how new generations potentially perceive their environment and take action. The intergenerational shift in perceptions of environmental thresholds is a phenomenon frequently termed shifting baseline syndrome (SBS). The goals of this study were (1) to determine relationships between ordinal scores (e.g., few, many) and quantitative measures (e.g., estimates of population size) used by members of a Maori community in New Zealand to score indicators for understanding the abundance of forest resources, and (2) to then analyze these relationships according to people's age to detect the effects of SBS and the rate that this shift was occurring for each indicator. We detected consistent relationships between the ordinal scores and quantitative measures for six forest indicators provided by community members. However, there was only a high degree of confidence about the direction of the age effect for three abundance indicators (Kereru [New Zealand Pigeon], Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae, 15% increase [CI = 5.1-27.1%] in flock size for any given ordinal category for each decade increase in age; long-finned eel, Anguilla dieffenbachia, 30% decrease [CI = -45.1% to -11.3%] in the distance (m) walked along a riverbank between observations of an eel for any given ordinal category for each decade increase in age; and Australian brush-tailed possum, Trichosurus vulpecula, 27% decrease [CI = -38.9% to -13.9%] in the distance (m) walked through forest between observations of possum sign for any given ordinal category for each decade increase in age), but the effect was statistically strong for all three. The decoupling of indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLC) from their traditional lands and biodiversity by an array of political, environmental, social and economic drivers and feedback mechanisms have contributed to and exacerbated the conditions for SBS. However, the protection of customary practices to engage with the environment, including the harvest of natural resources, community-based environmental monitoring initiatives, and cultural immersion education programs offer opportunities for IPLC to mitigate the often deleterious effects of SBS.

Complementarity of indigenous and western scientific approaches for monitoring forest state.

Cross-cultural environmental monitoring systems inform on a broad suite of indicators relevant to both scientific and local communities. In this study, we used forest-plot-based survey measures developed by western scientists and a set of community-based survey indicators developed by Maori, the indigenous people of New Zealand (NZ), to compare the current state of two ecologically congruent forests (Whirinaki and Ruatahuna), as they related to a historic Ruatahuna forest state (Baseline; 1955-1975) in NZ. Both the plot-based and community-based field surveys indicated that the Whirinaki forest was in a better state than the Ruatahuna forest. This was supported by a stronger mauri (concept of life essence) rating assigned by Maori elders to the Whirinaki forest compared with the Ruatahuna forests. However, both the Ruatahuna and Whirinaki forests were deemed to be in a significantly poorer state than the Baseline forest. A cross-cultural monitoring system provides understanding of forest state that both managers and communities can use for decision-making. Historical baselines of forest state can provide ecological targets for restoration initiatives and also identify where on the restoration continuum current forest indicators lie. The alignment of plot-based measures with community-based indicators offers possibilities for future-proofing a cross-cultural monitoring system and buffering it from intergenerational shifts in ecological baselines. The opportunity for indigenous peoples and local communities to apply their traditional ways of knowing, and interpret and act on information they understand are crucial components of cross-cultural environmental management regimes.