Tumour-draining axillary lymph nodes in patients with large and locally advanced breast cancers undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC): the crucial contribution of immune cells (effector, regulatory) and cytokines (Th1, Th2) to immune-mediated tumour cell death induced by NAC.

BACKGROUND: The tumour microenvironment consists of malignant cells, stroma and immune cells. In women with large and locally advanced breast cancers (LLABCs) undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC), tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), various subsets (effector, regulatory) and cytokines in the primary tumour play a key role in the induction of tumour cell death and a pathological complete response (pCR) with NAC. Their contribution to a pCR in nodal metastases, however, is poorly studied and was investigated. METHODS: Axillary lymph nodes (ALNs) (24 with and 9 without metastases) from women with LLABCs undergoing NAC were immunohistochemically assessed for TILs, T effector and regulatory cell subsets, NK cells and cytokine expression using labelled antibodies, employing established semi-quantitative methods. IBM SPSS statistical package (21v) was used. Non-parametric (paired and unpaired) statistical analyses were performed. Univariate and multivariate regression analyses were carried out to establish the prediction of a pCR and Spearman's Correlation Coefficient was used to determine the correlation of immune cell infiltrates in ALN metastatic and primary breast tumours. RESULTS: In ALN metastases high levels of TILs, CD4+ and CD8+ T and CD56+ NK cells were significantly associated with pCRs.. Significantly higher levels of Tregs (FOXP3+, CTLA-4+) and CD56+ NK cells were documented in ALN metastases than in the corresponding primary breast tumours. CD8+ T and CD56+ NK cells showed a positive correlation between metastatic and primary tumours. A high % CD8+ and low % FOXP3+ T cells and high CD8+: FOXP3+ ratio in metastatic ALNs (tumour-free para-cortex) were associated with pCRs. Metastatic ALNs expressed high IL-10, low IL-2 and IFN-ϒ. CONCLUSIONS: Our study has provided new data characterising the possible contribution of T effector and regulatory cells and NK cells and T helper1 and 2 cytokines to tumour cell death associated with NAC in ALNs. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The Trial was retrospectively registered. Study Registration Number is ISRCTN00407556 .

Natural killer (NK) cell profiles in blood and tumour in women with large and locally advanced breast cancer (LLABC) and their contribution to a pathological complete response (PCR) in the tumour following neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC): differential restoration of blood profiles by NAC and surgery.

BACKGROUND: NK cells contribute to tumour surveillance, inhibition of growth and dissemination by cytotoxicity, secretion of cytokines and interaction with immune cells. Their precise role in human breast cancer is unclear and the effect of therapy poorly studied. The purpose of our study was to characterise NK cells in women with large (≥3 cm) and locally advanced (T3-4, N1-2, M0) breast cancers (LLABCs) undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) and surgery, and to ascertain their possible contribution to a pathological complete response (pCR). METHODS: Women with LLABCs (n = 25) and healthy female donors [HFDs (n = 10)] were studied. Pathological responses in the breast were assessed using established criteria. Blood samples were collected pre and post NAC and surgery. Flow cytometry and labelled monoclonal antibodies established absolute numbers (AbNs) and percentages (%) of NK cells, and expressing granzyme B/perforin and NKG2D. In vitro NK cytotoxicity was assessed and NK cells and cytokines (IL-2, INF-γ, TGF-ß) documented in tumours using immunohistochemical techniques. Data was analysed by SPSS. RESULTS: Women with LLABCs had significantly reduced AbNs (160.00 ± 40.00 cells/µl) but not % of NK cells, compared with HFDs (NK: 266.78 ± 55.00 cells/µl; p = 0.020). NAC enhanced the AbN (p = 0.001) and % (p = 0.006) of NK cells in patients with good pathological responses. Granzyme B(+)/perforin(+) cells were significantly reduced (43.41 ± 4.00%), compared with HFDs (60.26 ± 7.00%; p = 0.003). NAC increased the % in good (p = 0.006) and poor (p = 0.005) pathological responders. Pretreatment NK cytotoxicity was significantly reduced in good (37.80 ± 8.05%) and poor (22.80 ± 7.97%) responders (p = 0.001) but remained unchanged following NAC. NK-NKG2D(+) cells were unaltered and unaffected by NAC; NKG2D expression was increased in patients with a pCR (p = 0.001). Surgery following NAC was not beneficial, except in those with a pCR. Tumour-infiltrating NK cells were infrequent but increased peritumourally (p = 0.005) showing a significant correlation (p = 0.004) between CD56(+) cells and grade of response. Tumour cytokines had no effect. CONCLUSION: Women with LLABCs have inhibited blood innate immunity, variably reversed by NAC (especially with tumour pCRs), which returned to pretreatment levels following surgery. These and in situ tumour findings suggest a role for NK cells in NAC-induced breast pCR.

Identification of highly conserved surface-exposed peptides of spike protein for multiepitope vaccine design against emerging omicron variants: An immunoinformatic approach.

The COVID-19 pandemic, originating in Wuhan in 2019, was caused by SARS-CoV-2, leading to significant global fatalities. Despite the development of vaccines, the virus mutates, creating variants that evade vaccine-induced immunity. To address SARS-CoV-2's evolving nature, a multiepitope vaccine was developed using immunoinformatics approach, specifically targeting the Omicron variant's spike protein. This vaccine includes six CD8 + and eleven CD4 + epitopes selected for their immunogenicity, non-toxicity, and significant conservation among former Variants of Concern (VOCs) and Variants of Interest (VOIs), such as Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, Lambda, Mu, R1, and Zeta, as well as current Variants Under Monitoring (VUMs) like XBB.1.5, XBB.1.16, EG.5, BA.2.86, and JN.1. Notably, certain epitopes like ELLHAPATV and PYRVVVLSFELLHAP were fully conserved across all tested variants in the spike protein's receptor binding domain (RBD). Others, such as NATRFASVYAWNRKR, were fully conserved in all former VOCs and VOIs and 93.33 % in current VUMs, while ERDISTEIYQAGNKP was entirely conserved in current VUMs within the RBD region. The study went on to model, refine, and validate the vaccine prototype's tertiary structure. Docking experiments and molecular dynamic simulations revealed robust and stable interactions with Toll-like receptor 4. Cloning and codon optimization confirmed successful expression in E. coli. Subsequently, the immunological reaction of the multiepitope vaccine demonstrated that the three-time administration of the prototype significantly enhanced the antibody response while decreasing the number of antigens. The designed vaccine's epitopes showed significant combined global population coverage of 100 % with 89.75 % for CD8 + and 99.98 % for CD4 + epitopes and conservation across SARS-CoV-2 variants especially in current monitoring omicron subvariants, supporting its broader applicability and potential efficacy. Although, this promising vaccine candidate needs to undergo clinical trials to determine its effectiveness in neutralising SARS-CoV-2.

A phase 1 trial of human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) vaccination combined with therapeutic strategies to control immune-suppressor mechanisms.

The presence of inhibitory immune cells and difficulty in generating activated effector T cells remain obstacles to development of effective cancer vaccines. We designed a vaccine regimen combining human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) peptides with concomitant therapies targeting regulatory T cells (Tregs) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2)-mediated immunosuppression. This Phase 1 trial combined an hTERT-derived 7-peptide library, selected to ensure presentation by both HLA class-I and class-II in 90% of patients, with oral low-dose cyclophosphamide (to modulate Tregs) and the COX2 inhibitor celecoxib. Adjuvants were Montanide and topical TLR-7 agonist, to optimise antigen presentation. The primary objective was determination of the safety and tolerability of this combination therapy, with anti-cancer activity, immune response and detection of antigen-specific T cells as additional endpoints. Twenty-nine patients with advanced solid tumours were treated. All were multiply-pretreated, and the majority had either colorectal or prostate cancer. The most common adverse events were injection-site reactions, fatigue and nausea. Median progression-free survival was 9 weeks, with no complete or partial responses, but 24% remained progression-free for ≥6 months. Immunophenotyping showed post-vaccination expansion of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells with effector phenotypes. The in vitro re-challenge of T cells with hTERT peptides, TCR sequencing, and TCR similarity index analysis demonstrated the expansion following vaccination of oligoclonal T cells with specificity for hTERT. However, a population of exhausted PD-1+ cytotoxic T cells was also expanded in vaccinated patients. This vaccine combination regimen was safe and associated with antigen-specific immunological responses. Clinical activity could be improved in future by combination with anti-PD1 checkpoint inhibition to address the emergence of an exhausted T cell population.

Abnormal T regulatory cells (Tregs: FOXP3+, CTLA-4+), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs: monocytic, granulocytic) and polarised T helper cell profiles (Th1, Th2, Th17) in women with large and locally advanced breast cancers undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) and surgery: failure of abolition of abnormal treg profile with treatment and correlation of treg levels with pathological response to NAC.

BACKGROUND: Host defences play a key role in tumour growth. Some of the benefits of chemotherapy may occur through modulation of these defences. The aim of this study was to define the status of regulatory cells in women with large and locally advanced breast cancers (LLABCs) undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) and surgery. METHODS: Bloods were collected from patients (n=56) before, during and following NAC, and surgery. Controls (n=10) were healthy, age-matched females donors (HFDs). Blood mononuclear cells (BMCs) were isolated and T regulatory cells (Tregs) (n=31) determined. Absolute numbers (AbNs) of Tregs and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) were ascertained from whole blood (n=25). Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction analysis determined Treg mRNA (n=16). In vitro production of Th1, Th2 and Th17 cytokines (n=30), was documented. Patients were classified as clinical responders by magnetic resonance mammography after two cycles of NAC and as pathological responders using established criteria, following surgery. RESULTS: Patients with LLABCs had significantly increased circulating Tregs (≥ 6 fold AbN and percentage (%)) and MDSCs (≥ 1.5 fold AbN (p=0.025)). Percentage of FOXP3+ Tregs in blood predicted the response of the LLABCs to subsequent NAC (p=0.04). Post NAC blood Tregs (%) were significantly reduced in patients where tumours showed a good pathological response to NAC (p=0.05). Blood MDSCs (granulocytic, monocytic) were significantly reduced in all patients, irrespective of the pathological tumour response to chemotherapy. NAC followed by surgery failed to restore blood Tregs to normal levels. MDSCs, however, were reduced to or below normal levels by NAC alone. Invitro Th1 profile (IL-1ß, IL-2, INF-γ, TNF-α) was significantly reduced (p ≤ 0.009), whilst Th2 (IL-4, IL-5) was significantly enhanced (P ≤ 0.004). Th1 and Th2 (IL-5) were unaffected by NAC and surgery. IL-17A was significantly increased (p ≤ 0.023) but unaffected by chemotherapy and surgery. CONCLUSION: Women with LLABCs have abnormal blood regulatory cell levels (Tregs and MDSCs) and cytokine profiles (Th1, Th2, Th17). NAC followed by surgery failed to abolish the abnormal Treg and Th profiles. There was a significant correlation between the circulatory levels of Tregs and the pathological response of the breast cancers to NAC.

Generation in vivo of peptide-specific cytotoxic T cells and presence of regulatory T cells during vaccination with hTERT (class I and II) peptide-pulsed DCs.

BACKGROUND: Optimal techniques for DC generation for immunotherapy in cancer are yet to be established. Study aims were to evaluate: (i) DC activation/maturation milieu (TNF-alpha +/- IFN-alpha) and its effects on CD8+ hTERT-specific T cell responses to class I epitopes (p540 or p865), (ii) CD8+ hTERT-specific T cell responses elicited by vaccination with class I alone or both class I and II epitope (p766 and p672)-pulsed DCs, prepared without IFN-alpha, (iii) association between circulating T regulatory cells (Tregs) and clinical responses. METHODS: Autologous DCs were generated from 10 patients (HLA-0201) with advanced cancer by culturing CD14+ blood monocytes in the presence of GM-CSF and IL-4 supplemented with TNF-alpha [DCT] or TNF-alpha and IFN-alpha [DCTI]. The capacity of the DCs to induce functional CD8+ T cell responses to hTERT HLA-0201 restricted nonapeptides was assessed by MHC tetramer binding and peptide-specific cytotoxicity. Each DC preparation (DCT or DCTI) was pulsed with only one type of hTERT peptide (p540 or p865) and both preparations were injected into separate lymph node draining regions every 2-3 weeks. This vaccination design enabled comparison of efficacy between DCT and DCTI in generating hTERT peptide specific CD8+ T cells and comparison of class I hTERT peptide (p540 or p865)-loaded DCT with or without class II cognate help (p766 and p672) in 6 patients. T regulatory cells were evaluated in 8 patients. RESULTS: (i) DCTIs and DCTs, pulsed with hTERT peptides, were comparable (p = 0.45, t-test) in inducing peptide-specific CD8+ T cell responses. (ii) Class II cognate help, significantly enhanced (p < 0.05, t-test) peptide-specific CD8+T cell responses, compared with class I pulsed DCs alone. (iii) Clinical responders had significantly lower (p < 0.05, Mann-Whitney U test) T regs, compared with non-responders. 4/16 patients experienced partial but transient clinical responses during vaccination. Vaccination was well tolerated with minimal toxicity. CONCLUSION: Addition of IFN-alpha to ex vivo monocyte-derived DCs, did not significantly enhance peptide-specific T cell responses in vivo, compared with TNF-alpha alone. Class II cognate help significantly augments peptide-specific T cell responses. Clinically favourable responses were seen in patients with low levels of circulating T regs.

Ligand- and structure-based pharmacophore modeling, docking study reveals 2-[[4-[6-(isopropylamino) pyrimidin-4-yl]-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b] pyridin-6-yl] amino] ethanol as a potential anticancer agent of CDK9/cyclin T1 kinase.

OBJECTIVE: CDK9/Cyclin T1 kinase is a protein kinase, indirectly involved in the cell cycle progression in the form of transcription elongation, CDK9 specific inhibitors may be a potential alternative treatment not only for cancer but also other life-threatening diseases. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ligand-based and structure-based pharmacophore model was developed for discovering of the new anticancer agents. These models used as three-dimensional query for virtual screening against the chemical structure databases such as Maybridge HitFinder, MDPI, and ZINC. Subsequently, the potential hit compound was filtered by the ADMET and docking score. RESULTS: After applying all filtration, 11 hits were found as potential hits based on good docking scores as well as good ADMET properties. Compound 2-[4-[6-(isopropylamino) pyrimidin-4-yl]-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b] pyridin-6-yl] amino] ethanol was found to be most potent among all the potential hits. These hits could be used as an anticancer agent in near future. CONCLUSIONS: So many advances in the treatment of death leading diseases have been made over the past few decades, However, looking for the development in this research ligand-based and structure-based pharmacophore modeling was done, hit1 2-[4-[6-(isopropylamino) pyrimidin-4-yl]-1H-pyrrolo[2,3 b] pyridin-6 yl] amino] ethanol was found to be more potent and selective. It is understandable that these hits could be as selective and potent anticancer agents of cyclin-dependent kinase complex.

Modulation of T Regulatory and Dendritic Cell Phenotypes Following Ingestion of Bifidobacterium longum, AHCC® and Azithromycin in Healthy Individuals.

The probiotic Bifidus BB536 (BB536), which contains Bifidobacterium longum, has been shown to have enhanced probiotic effects when given together with a standardized extract of cultured Lentinula edodes mycelia (AHCC®, Amino Up Co. Ltd., Sapporo, Japan). BB536 and AHCC® may modulate T cell and dendritic cell (DC) phenotypes, and cytokine profiles to favour anti-inflammatory responses following antibiotic ingestion. We tested the hypothesis that orally administered BB536 and/or AHCC®, results in modulation of immune effector cells with polarisation towards anti-inflammatory responses following antibiotic usage. Forty healthy male volunteers divided into 4 equal groups were randomised to receive either placebo, BB536, AHCC® or a combination for 12 days in a double-blind manner. After 7 days volunteers also received 250 mg azithromycin for 5 days. Cytokine profiles from purified CD3+ T cells stimulated with PDB-ionomycin were assessed. CD4+ CD25+ forkhead box P3 (Foxp3) expression and peripheral blood DC subsets were assessed prior to treatment and subsequently at 7 and 13 days. There was no difference in cytokine secretion from stimulated CD3+ T cells between treatment groups. Compared with baseline, Foxp3 expression (0.45 ± 0.1 vs. 1.3 ± 0.4; p = 0.002) and interferon-gamma/interleukin-4 (IFN-γ/IL-4) ratios were increased post-treatment in volunteers receiving BB536 (p = 0.031), although differences between groups were not significant. For volunteers receiving combination BB536 and AHCC®, there was an increase in myeloid dendritic cells (mDC) compared with plasmacytoid DC (pDC) counts (80% vs. 61%; p = 0.006) at post treatment time points. mDC2 phenotypes were more prevalent, compared with baseline, following combination treatment (0.16% vs. 0.05%; p = 0.002). Oral intake of AHCC® and BB536 may modulate T regulatory and DC phenotypes to favour anti-inflammatory responses following antibiotic usage.

Ex vivo recovery and activation of dysfunctional, anergic, monocyte-derived dendritic cells from patients with operable breast cancer: critical role of IFN-alpha.

BACKGROUND: Dendritic cells (DCs) play a crucial role in initiating effective cell-mediated immune responses, but are dysfunctional and anergic in breast cancer. Reversal of this dysfunction and establishment of optimal DC function is a key prerequisite for the induction of effective anti-cancer immune responses. RESULTS: Peripheral blood DCs (PBDCs) and lymph node DCs (LNDCs) generated in vitro from adherent cultures of peripheral blood monocytes (PBMs) and lymph node monocytes (LNMs), respectively, using the 4 cytokine conditioned medium (CCM) (GM-CSF+IL-4+TNF-alpha+IFN-alpha) or 3 CCM (GM-CSF+IL-4+TNF-alpha) demonstrated a significantly higher degree of recovery and functional capacity in a mixed lymphocyte DC reaction (MLDCR, p < 0.001), expressed significantly higher levels of HLA-DR, CD86, compared with 2 CCM (GM-CSF+IL-4) or medium alone generated DCs from PBMs and LNMs (p < 0.001). The PBDCs generated with 3 CCM or 4 CCM showed a significantly (p < 0.001) enhanced macropinocytotic capability (dextran particles) and induced increased production and secretion of interleukin-12p40 (IL-12p40) in vitro (p < 0.001), compared with PBDCs generated from monocytes using 2 CCM or medium alone. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation of PBDCs generated with 4 CCM demonstrated enhanced secretion of IL-6 but not IL-12p70, compared with control DCs unstimulated with LPS (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Dysfunctional and anergic PBDCs and LNDCs from patients with operable breast cancer can be optimally reversed by ex vivo culturing of precursor adherent monocytes using a 4 CCM containing IFN-alpha. Maximal immunophenotypic recovery and functional reactivation of DCs is seen in the presence of IFN-alpha. However, 4 CCM containing IFN-alpha generated-PBDCs, do not produce and secrete IL-12p70 in vitro.

Identification of novel inhibitors against Cyclin Dependent Kinase 9/Cyclin T1 complex as: Anti cancer agent.

Cell cycle consists of different types of phases, transition from G1, S, G2, M. Inhibition of associated CDKs like CDK9/Cyclin T1 complex, which are indirectly involved in the Cell cycle progression in the form of transcription elongation, reduces diverse diseases such as Cardiac Hypertrophy, Alzheimer's, Cancer, AIDS and Inflammation. Glide tool of the Schrodinger software has been used for performing Structure Based Virtual Screening and Docking against Drug Bank and MDPI database. The best hits were identified which go and bind in the active site of the target where ATP binds for the activity. The ADMET, MM-GBSA and DFT analysis is also done for the same. Compound 4-{4-[4-(3-aminopropoxy)phenyl]-1H-pyrazol-5-yl}-6-chlorobenzene-1,3-diol (DB08045) was found to be more potent, novel and selective as an inhibitor. Hopefully compound (DB08045) could be used as an anti-cancer agent for the treatment of life-threatening diseases.

The Differential Contribution of the Innate Immune System to a Good Pathological Response in the Breast and Axillary Lymph Nodes Induced by Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy in Women with Large and Locally Advanced Breast Cancers.

The tumour microenvironment consists of malignant cells, stroma, and immune cells. The role of adaptive immunity in inducing a pathological complete response (pCR) in breast cancer with neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) is well studied. The contribution of innate immunity, however, is poorly documented. Breast tumours and axillary lymph nodes (ALNs) from 33 women with large and locally advanced breast cancers (LLABCs) undergoing NAC were immunohistochemically assessed for tumour-infiltrating macrophages (TIMs: M1 and M2), neutrophils (TINs), and dendritic cells (TIDCs) using labelled antibodies and semiquantitative methods. Patients' blood neutrophils (n = 108), DCs (mDC1 and pDC), and their costimulatory molecules (n = 30) were also studied. Pathological results were classified as pCR, good (GPR) or poor (PRR). In breast and metastatic ALNs, high levels of CD163+ TIMs were significantly associated with a pCR. In blood, high levels of neutrophils were significantly associated with pCR in metastatic ALNs, whilst the % of mDC1 and pDC and expression of HLA-DR, mDC1 CD40, and CD83 were significantly reduced. NAC significantly reduced tumour DCs but increased blood DCs. PPRs to NAC had significantly reduced HLA-DR, CD40, and CD86 expression. Our study demonstrated novel findings documenting the differential but important contributions of innate immunity to pCRs in patients with LLABCs undergoing NAC.

Crucial Contributions by T Lymphocytes (Effector, Regulatory, and Checkpoint Inhibitor) and Cytokines (TH1, TH2, and TH17) to a Pathological Complete Response Induced by Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy in Women with Breast Cancer.

The tumour microenvironment consists of malignant cells, stroma, and immune cells. Prominent tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) in breast cancer are associated with a good prognosis and are predictors of a pathological complete response (pCR) with neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC). The contribution of different T effector/regulatory cells and cytokines to tumour cell death with NAC requires further characterisation and was investigated in this study. Breast tumours from 33 women with large and locally advanced breast cancers undergoing NAC were immunohistochemically (intratumoural, stromal) assessed for T cell subsets and cytokine expression using labelled antibodies, employing established semiquantitative methods. Prominent levels of TILs and CD4+, CD8+, and CTLA-4+ (stromal) T cells and CD8+ : FOXP3+ ratios were associated with a significant pCR; no association was seen with FOXP3+, CTLA-4+ (intratumoural), and PD-1+ T cells. NAC significantly reduced CD4+, FOXP3+, CTLA-4+ (stromal) (concurrently blood FOXP3+, CTLA-4+ Tregs), and PD-1+ T cells; no reduction was seen with CD8+ and CTLA-4+ (intratumoural) T cells. High post-NAC tumour levels of FOXP3+ T cells, IL-10, and IL-17 were associated with a failed pCR. Our study has characterised further the contribution of T effector/regulatory cells and cytokines to tumour cell death with NAC.