Phosphorylation of the aggregate-forming protein alpha-synuclein on serine-129 inhibits its DNA-bending properties.

Alpha-synuclein (aSyn) is a vertebrate protein, normally found within the presynaptic nerve terminal and nucleus, which is known to form somatic and neuritic aggregates in certain neurodegenerative diseases. Disease-associated aggregates of aSyn are heavily phosphorylated at serine-129 (pSyn), while normal aSyn protein is not. Within the nucleus, aSyn can directly bind DNA, but the mechanism of binding and the potential modulatory roles of phosphorylation are poorly understood. Here we demonstrate using a combination of electrophoretic mobility shift assay and atomic force microscopy approaches that both aSyn and pSyn can bind DNA within the major groove, in a DNA length-dependent manner and with little specificity for DNA sequence. Our data are consistent with a model in which multiple aSyn molecules bind a single 300 base pair (bp) DNA molecule in such a way that stabilizes the DNA in a bent conformation. We propose that serine-129 phosphorylation decreases the ability of aSyn to both bind and bend DNA, as aSyn binds 304 bp circular DNA forced into a bent shape, but pSyn does not. Two aSyn paralogs, beta- and gamma-synuclein, also interact with DNA differently than aSyn, and do not stabilize similar DNA conformations. Our work suggests that reductions in aSyn's ability to bind and bend DNA induced by serine-129 phosphorylation may be important for modulating aSyn's known roles in DNA metabolism, including the regulation of transcription and DNA repair.

Genetic deletion of Polo-like kinase 2 reduces alpha-synuclein serine-129 phosphorylation in presynaptic terminals but not Lewy bodies.

Phosphorylation of alpha-synuclein at serine-129 is an important marker of pathologically relevant, aggregated forms of the protein in several important human diseases, including Parkinson's disease, Dementia with Lewy bodies, and Multiple system atrophy. Although several kinases have been shown to be capable of phosphorylating alpha-synuclein in various model systems, the identity of the kinase that phosphorylates alpha-synuclein in the Lewy body remains unknown. One member of the Polo-like kinase family, PLK2, is a strong candidate for being the Lewy body kinase. To examine this possibility, we have used a combination of approaches, including biochemical, immunohistochemical, and in vivo multiphoton imaging techniques to study the consequences of PLK2 genetic deletion on alpha-synuclein phosphorylation in both the presynaptic terminal and preformed fibril-induced Lewy body pathology in mouse cortex. We find that PLK2 deletion reduces presynaptic terminal alpha-synuclein serine-129 phosphorylation, but has no effect on Lewy body phosphorylation levels. Serine-129 mutation to the phosphomimetic alanine or the unphosphorylatable analog aspartate does not change the rate of cell death of Lewy inclusion-bearing neurons in our in vivo multiphoton imaging paradigm, but PLK2 deletion does slow the rate of neuronal death. Our data indicate that inhibition of PLK2 represents a promising avenue for developing new therapeutics, but that the mechanism of neuroprotection by PLK2 inhibition is not likely due to reducing alpha-synuclein serine-129 phosphorylation and that the true Lewy body kinase still awaits discovery.

In vivo aggregation of presynaptic alpha-synuclein is not influenced by its phosphorylation at serine-129.

Abnormal aggregation of the α-synuclein protein is a key molecular feature of Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. The precise mechanisms that trigger α-synuclein aggregation are unclear, and it is not known what role aggregation plays in disease pathogenesis. Here we use an in vivo zebrafish model to express several different forms of human α-synuclein and measure its aggregation in presynaptic terminals. We show that human α-synuclein tagged with GFP can be expressed in zebrafish neurons, localizing normally to presynaptic terminals and undergoing phosphorylation at serine-129, as in mammalian neurons. The visual advantages of the zebrafish system allow for dynamic in vivo imaging to study α-synuclein, including the use of fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) techniques to probe protein mobility. These experiments reveal three distinct terminal pools of α-synuclein with varying mobility, likely representing different subpopulations of aggregated and non-aggregated protein. Human α-synuclein is phosphorylated by an endogenous zebrafish Polo-like kinase activity, and there is a heterogeneous population of neurons containing either very little or extensive phosphorylation throughout the axonal arbor. Both pharmacological and genetic manipulations of serine-129 show that phosphorylation of α-synuclein at this site does not significantly affect its mobility. This suggests that serine-129 phosphorylation alone does not promote α-synuclein aggregation. Together our results show that human α-synuclein can be expressed and measured quantitatively in zebrafish, and that disease-relevant post-translational modifications occur within neurons. The zebrafish model provides a powerful in vivo system for measuring and manipulating α-synuclein function and aggregation, and for developing new treatments for neurodegenerative disease.

Multicolor lineage tracing using in vivo time-lapse imaging reveals coordinated death of clonally related cells in the developing vertebrate brain.

The global mechanisms that regulate and potentially coordinate cell proliferation & death in developing neural regions are not well understood. In particular, it is not clear how or whether clonal relationships between neural progenitor cells and their progeny influence the growing brain. We have developed an approach using Brainbow in the developing zebrafish to visualize and follow multiple clones of related cells in vivo over time. This allows for clear visualization of many dividing clones of cells, deep in proliferating brain regions. As expected, in addition to undergoing interkinetic nuclear migration and cell division, cells also periodically undergo apoptosis. Interestingly, cell death occurs in a non-random manner: clonally related cells are more likely to die in a progressive fashion than cells from different clones. Multiple members of an individual clone die while neighboring clones appear healthy and continue to divide. Our results suggest that clonal relationships can influence cellular fitness and survival in the developing nervous system, perhaps through a competitive mechanism whereby clones of cells are competing with other clones. Clonal cell competition may help regulate neuronal proliferation in the vertebrate brain.

Zebrabow: multispectral cell labeling for cell tracing and lineage analysis in zebrafish.

Advances in imaging and cell-labeling techniques have greatly enhanced our understanding of developmental and neurobiological processes. Among vertebrates, zebrafish is uniquely suited for in vivo imaging owing to its small size and optical translucency. However, distinguishing and following cells over extended time periods remains difficult. Previous studies have demonstrated that Cre recombinase-mediated recombination can lead to combinatorial expression of spectrally distinct fluorescent proteins (RFP, YFP and CFP) in neighboring cells, creating a 'Brainbow' of colors. The random combination of fluorescent proteins provides a way to distinguish adjacent cells, visualize cellular interactions and perform lineage analyses. Here, we describe Zebrabow (Zebrafish Brainbow) tools for in vivo multicolor imaging in zebrafish. First, we show that the broadly expressed ubi:Zebrabow line provides diverse color profiles that can be optimized by modulating Cre activity. Second, we find that colors are inherited equally among daughter cells and remain stable throughout embryonic and larval stages. Third, we show that UAS:Zebrabow lines can be used in combination with Gal4 to generate broad or tissue-specific expression patterns and facilitate tracing of axonal processes. Fourth, we demonstrate that Zebrabow can be used for long-term lineage analysis. Using the cornea as a model system, we provide evidence that embryonic corneal epithelial clones are replaced by large, wedge-shaped clones formed by centripetal expansion of cells from the peripheral cornea. The Zebrabow tool set presented here provides a resource for next-generation color-based anatomical and lineage analyses in zebrafish.

In Vivo Time-Lapse Imaging in the Zebrafish Lateral Line: A Flexible, Open-Ended Research Project for an Undergraduate Neurobiology Laboratory Course.

The lateral line sensory system in fish detects movements in the water and allows fish to respond to predators, prey, and other stimuli. As the lateral line forms in the first two days of zebrafish development, axons extend caudally along the lateral surface of the fish, eventually forming synapses with hair cells of neuromasts. Growing lateral line axons are located superficially under the skin and can be labeled in living zebrafish using fluorescent protein expression. This system provides a relatively straightforward approach for in vivo time-lapse imaging of neuronal development in an undergraduate setting. Here we describe an upper-level neurobiology laboratory module in which students investigate aspects of axonal development in the zebrafish lateral line system. Students learn to handle and image living fish, collect time-lapse videos of moving mitochondria, and quantitatively measure mitochondrial dynamics by generating and analyzing kymographs of their movements. Energy demands may differ between axons with extending growth cones versus axons that have already reached their targets and are forming synapses. Since relatively little is known about this process in developing lateral line axons, students generate and test their own hypotheses regarding how mitochondrial dynamics may differ at two different time points in axonal development. Students also learn to incorporate into their analysis a powerful yet accessible quantitative tool, the kymograph, which is used to graph movement over time. After students measure and quantify dynamics in living fish at 1 and 2 days post fertilization, this module extends into independent projects, in which students can expand their studies in a number of different, inquiry-driven directions. The project can also be pared down for courses that wish to focus solely on the quantitative analysis (without fish handling), or vice versa. This research module provides a useful approach for the design of open-ended laboratory research projects that integrate the scientific process into undergraduate Biology courses, as encouraged by the AAAS and NSF Vision and Change Initiative.

Transgenic strategies for combinatorial expression of fluorescent proteins in the nervous system.

Detailed analysis of neuronal network architecture requires the development of new methods. Here we present strategies to visualize synaptic circuits by genetically labelling neurons with multiple, distinct colours. In Brainbow transgenes, Cre/lox recombination is used to create a stochastic choice of expression between three or more fluorescent proteins (XFPs). Integration of tandem Brainbow copies in transgenic mice yielded combinatorial XFP expression, and thus many colours, thereby providing a way to distinguish adjacent neurons and visualize other cellular interactions. As a demonstration, we reconstructed hundreds of neighbouring axons and multiple synaptic contacts in one small volume of a cerebellar lobe exhibiting approximately 90 colours. The expression in some lines also allowed us to map glial territories and follow glial cells and neurons over time in vivo. The ability of the Brainbow system to label uniquely many individual cells within a population may facilitate the analysis of neuronal circuitry on a large scale.

Visualizing the Developing Brain in Living Zebrafish using Brainbow and Time-lapse Confocal Imaging.

Development of the vertebrate nervous system requires a precise coordination of complex cellular behaviors and interactions. The use of high resolution in vivo imaging techniques can provide a clear window into these processes in the living organism. For example, dividing cells and their progeny can be followed in real time as the nervous system forms. In recent years, technical advances in multicolor techniques have expanded the types of questions that can be investigated. The multicolor Brainbow approach can be used to not only distinguish among like cells, but also to color-code multiple different clones of related cells that each derive from one progenitor cell. This allows for a multiplex lineage analysis of many different clones and their behaviors simultaneously during development. Here we describe a technique for using time-lapse confocal microscopy to visualize large numbers of multicolor Brainbow-labeled cells over real time within the developing zebrafish nervous system. This is particularly useful for following cellular interactions among like cells, which are difficult to label differentially using traditional promoter-driven colors. Our approach can be used for tracking lineage relationships among multiple different clones simultaneously. The large datasets generated using this technique provide rich information that can be compared quantitatively across genetic or pharmacological manipulations. Ultimately the results generated can help to answer systematic questions about how the nervous system develops.

Combining near-infrared fluorescence with Brainbow to visualize expression of specific genes within a multicolor context.

Fluorescent proteins are a powerful experimental tool, allowing the visualization of gene expression and cellular behaviors in a variety of systems. Multicolor combinations of fluorescent proteins, such as Brainbow, have expanded the range of possible research questions and are useful for distinguishing and tracking cells. The addition of a separately driven color, however, would allow researchers to report expression of a manipulated gene within the multicolor context to investigate mechanistic effects. A far-red or near-infrared protein could be particularly suitable in this context, as these can be distinguished spectrally from Brainbow. We investigated five far-red/near-infrared proteins in zebrafish: TagRFP657, mCardinal, miRFP670, iRFP670, and mIFP. Our results show that both mCardinal and iRFP670 are useful fluorescent proteins for zebrafish expression. We also introduce a new transgenic zebrafish line that expresses Brainbow under the control of the neuroD promoter. We demonstrate that mCardinal can be used to track the expression of a manipulated bone morphogenetic protein receptor within the Brainbow context. The overlay of near-infrared fluorescence onto a Brainbow background defines a clear strategy for future research questions that aim to manipulate or track the effects of specific genes within a population of cells that are delineated using multicolor approaches.

Alpha-synuclein is a DNA binding protein that modulates DNA repair with implications for Lewy body disorders.

Alpha-synuclein is a presynaptic protein that forms abnormal cytoplasmic aggregates in Lewy body disorders. Although nuclear alpha-synuclein localization has been described, its function in the nucleus is not well understood. We demonstrate that alpha-synuclein modulates DNA repair. First, alpha-synuclein colocalizes with DNA damage response components within discrete foci in human cells and mouse brain. Removal of alpha-synuclein in human cells leads to increased DNA double-strand break (DSB) levels after bleomycin treatment and a reduced ability to repair these DSBs. Similarly, alpha-synuclein knock-out mice show increased neuronal DSBs that can be rescued by transgenic reintroduction of human alpha-synuclein. Alpha-synuclein binds double-stranded DNA and helps to facilitate the non-homologous end-joining reaction. Using a new, in vivo imaging approach that we developed, we find that serine-129-phosphorylated alpha-synuclein is rapidly recruited to DNA damage sites in living mouse cortex. We find that Lewy inclusion-containing neurons in both mouse model and human-derived patient tissue demonstrate increased DSB levels. Based on these data, we propose a model whereby cytoplasmic aggregation of alpha-synuclein reduces its nuclear levels, increases DSBs, and may contribute to programmed cell death via nuclear loss-of-function. This model could inform development of new treatments for Lewy body disorders by targeting alpha-synuclein-mediated DNA repair mechanisms.

Calcium waves propagate through radial glial cells and modulate proliferation in the developing neocortex.

The majority of neurons in the adult neocortex are produced embryonically during a brief but intense period of neuronal proliferation. The radial glial cell, a transient embryonic cell type known for its crucial role in neuronal migration, has recently been shown to function as a neuronal progenitor cell and appears to produce most cortical pyramidal neurons. Radial glial cell modulation could thus affect neuron production, neuronal migration, and overall cortical architecture; however, signaling mechanisms among radial glia have not been studied directly. We demonstrate here that calcium waves propagate through radial glial cells in the proliferative cortical ventricular zone (VZ). Radial glial calcium waves occur spontaneously and require connexin hemichannels, P2Y1 ATP receptors, and intracellular IP3-mediated calcium release. Furthermore, we show that wave disruption decreases VZ proliferation during the peak of embryonic neurogenesis. Taken together, these results demonstrate a radial glial signaling mechanism that may regulate cortical neuronal production.

Dividing precursor cells of the embryonic cortical ventricular zone have morphological and molecular characteristics of radial glia.

The embryonic ventricular zone (VZ) of the cerebral cortex contains migrating neurons, radial glial cells, and a large population of cycling progenitor cells that generate newborn neurons. The latter two cell classes have been assumed for some time to be distinct in both function and anatomy, but the cellular anatomy of the progenitor cell type has remained poorly defined. Several recent reports have raised doubts about the distinction between radial glial and precursor cells by demonstrating that radial glial cells are themselves neuronal progenitor cells (Malatesta et al., 2000; Hartfuss et al., 2001; Miyata et al., 2001; Noctor et al., 2001). This discovery raises the possibility that radial glia and the population of VZ progenitor cells may be one anatomical and functional cell class. Such a hypothesis predicts that throughout neurogenesis almost all mitotically active VZ cells and a substantial percentage of VZ cells overall are radial glia. We have therefore used various anatomical, immunohistochemical, and electrophysiological techniques to test these predictions. Our data demonstrate that the majority of VZ cells, and nearly all mitotically active VZ cells during neurogenesis, both have radial glial morphology and express radial glial markers. In addition, intracellular dye filling of electrophysiologically characterized progenitor cells in the VZ demonstrates that these cells have the morphology of radial glia. Because the vast majority cycling cells in the cortical VZ have characteristics of radial glia, the radial glial precursor cell may be responsible for both the production of newborn neurons and the guidance of daughter neurons to their destinations in the developing cortex.

Brainbow: new resources and emerging biological applications for multicolor genetic labeling and analysis.

Brainbow is a genetic cell-labeling technique where hundreds of different hues can be generated by stochastic and combinatorial expression of a few spectrally distinct fluorescent proteins. Unique color profiles can be used as cellular identification tags for multiple applications such as tracing axons through the nervous system, following individual cells during development, or analyzing cell lineage. In recent years, Brainbow and other combinatorial expression strategies have expanded from the mouse nervous system to other model organisms and a wide variety of tissues. Particularly exciting is the application of Brainbow in lineage tracing, where this technique has been instrumental in parsing out complex cellular relationships during organogenesis. Here we review recent findings, new technical improvements, and exciting potential genetic and genomic applications for harnessing this colorful technique in anatomical, developmental, and genetic studies.

Mapping the development of cerebellar Purkinje cells in zebrafish.

The cells that comprise the cerebellum perform a complex integration of neural inputs to influence motor control and coordination. The functioning of this circuit depends upon Purkinje cells and other cerebellar neurons forming in the precise place and time during development. Zebrafish provide a useful platform for modeling disease and studying gene function, thus a quantitative metric of normal zebrafish cerebellar development is key for understanding how gene mutations affect the cerebellum. To begin to quantitatively measure cerebellar development in zebrafish, we have characterized the spatial and temporal patterning of Purkinje cells during the first 2 weeks of development. Differentiated Purkinje cells first emerged by 2.8 days post fertilization and were spatially patterned into separate dorsomedial and ventrolateral clusters that merged at around 4 days. Quantification of the Purkinje cell layer revealed that there was a logarithmic increase in both Purkinje cell number as well as overall volume during the first 2 weeks, while the entire region curved forward in an anterior, then ventral direction. Purkinje cell dendrites were positioned next to parallel fibers as early as 3.3 days, and Purkinje cell diameter decreased significantly from 3.3 to 14 days, possibly due to cytoplasmic reappropriation into maturing dendritic arbors. A nearest neighbor analysis showed that Purkinje cells moved slightly apart from each other from 3 to 14 days, perhaps spreading as the organized monolayer forms. This study establishes a quantitative spatiotemporal map of Purkinje cell development in zebrafish that provides an important metric for studies of cerebellar development and disease.

In vivo imaging of alpha-synuclein in mouse cortex demonstrates stable expression and differential subcellular compartment mobility.

BACKGROUND: Regulation of alpha-synuclein levels within cells is thought to play a critical role in Parkinson's Disease (PD) pathogenesis and in other related synucleinopathies. These processes have been studied primarily in reduced preparations, including cell culture. We now develop methods to measure alpha-synuclein levels in the living mammalian brain to study in vivo protein mobility, turnover and degradation with subcellular specificity. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We have developed a system using enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)-tagged human alpha-synuclein (Syn-GFP) transgenic mice and in vivo multiphoton imaging to measure alpha-synuclein levels with subcellular resolution. This new experimental paradigm allows individual Syn-GFP-expressing neurons and presynaptic terminals to be imaged in the living mouse brain over a period of months. We find that Syn-GFP is stably expressed by neurons and presynaptic terminals over this time frame and further find that different presynaptic terminals can express widely differing levels of Syn-GFP. Using the fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) technique in vivo we provide evidence that at least two pools of Syn-GFP exist in terminals with lower levels of mobility than measured previously. These results demonstrate that multiphoton imaging in Syn-GFP mice is an excellent new strategy for exploring the biology of alpha-synuclein and related mechanisms of neurodegeneration. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: In vivo multiphoton imaging in Syn-GFP transgenic mice demonstrates stable alpha-synuclein expression and differential subcellular compartment mobility within cortical neurons. This opens new avenues for studying alpha-synuclein biology in the living brain and testing new therapeutics for PD and related disorders.