Genome-wide copy number variation analysis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: association with neuropeptide Y gene dosage in an extended pedigree.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common, highly heritable neurodevelopmental syndrome characterized by hyperactivity, inattention and increased impulsivity. To detect micro-deletions and micro-duplications that may have a role in the pathogenesis of ADHD, we carried out a genome-wide screen for copy number variations (CNVs) in a cohort of 99 children and adolescents with severe ADHD. Using high-resolution array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH), a total of 17 potentially syndrome-associated CNVs were identified. The aberrations comprise 4 deletions and 13 duplications with approximate sizes ranging from 110 kb to 3 Mb. Two CNVs occurred de novo and nine were inherited from a parent with ADHD, whereas five are transmitted by an unaffected parent. Candidates include genes expressing acetylcholine-metabolizing butyrylcholinesterase (BCHE), contained in a de novo chromosome 3q26.1 deletion, and a brain-specific pleckstrin homology domain-containing protein (PLEKHB1), with an established function in primary sensory neurons, in two siblings carrying a 11q13.4 duplication inherited from their affected mother. Other genes potentially influencing ADHD-related psychopathology and involved in aberrations inherited from affected parents are the genes for the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase 1 α subcomplex assembly factor 2 (NDUFAF2), the brain-specific phosphodiesterase 4D isoform 6 (PDE4D6) and the neuronal glucose transporter 3 (SLC2A3). The gene encoding neuropeptide Y (NPY) was included in a ∼3 Mb duplication on chromosome 7p15.2-15.3, and investigation of additional family members showed a nominally significant association of this 7p15 duplication with increased NPY plasma concentrations (empirical family-based association test, P=0.023). Lower activation of the left ventral striatum and left posterior insula during anticipation of large rewards or losses elicited by functional magnetic resonance imaging links gene dose-dependent increases in NPY to reward and emotion processing in duplication carriers. These findings implicate CNVs of behaviour-related genes in the pathogenesis of ADHD and are consistent with the notion that both frequent and rare variants influence the development of this common multifactorial syndrome.

Increase in gastric acid-induced afferent input to the brainstem in mice with gastritis.

Acid challenge of the gastric mucosa is signaled to the brainstem. This study examined whether mild gastritis due to dextrane sulfate sodium (DSS) or iodoacetamide (IAA) enhances gastric acid-evoked input to the brainstem and whether this effect is related to gastric myeloperoxidase activity, gastric histology, gastric volume retention or cyclooxygenase stimulation. The stomach of conscious mice was challenged with NaCl (0.15 M) or HCl (0.15 and 0.25 M) administered via gastric gavage. Two hours later, activation of neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) was visualized by c-Fos immunocytochemistry. Gastritis was induced by DSS (molecular weight 8000; 5%) or IAA (0.1%) added to the drinking water for 7 days. Relative to NaCl, intragastric HCl increased the number of c-Fos protein-expressing cells in the NTS. Pretreatment with DSS or IAA for 1 week did not alter the c-Fos response to NaCl but significantly enhanced the response to HCl by 54 and 74%, respectively. Either pretreatment elevated gastric myeloperoxidase activity and induced histological injury of the mucosal surface. In addition, DSS caused dilation of the gastric glands and damage to the parietal cells. HCl-induced gastric volume retention was not altered by IAA but attenuated by DSS pretreatment. Indomethacin (5 mg/kg) failed to significantly alter HCl-evoked expression of c-Fos in the NTS of control, DSS-pretreated and IAA-pretreated mice. We conclude that the gastritis-evoked increase in the gastric acid-evoked c-Fos expression in the NTS is related to disruption of the gastric mucosal barrier, mucosal inflammation, mucosal acid influx and enhanced activation of the afferent stomach-NTS axis.

Experimental gastritis in mice enhances anxiety in a gender-related manner.

There is a gender-related comorbidity of pain-related and inflammatory bowel diseases with psychiatric diseases. Since the impact of experimental gastrointestinal inflammation on the emotional-affective behavior is little known, we examined whether experimental gastritis modifies anxiety, stress coping and circulating corticosterone in male and female Him:OF1 mice. Gastritis was induced by adding iodoacetamide (0.1%) to the drinking water for at least 7 days. Inflammation was assessed by gastric histology and myeloperoxidase activity, circulating corticosterone determined by enzyme immunoassay, anxiety-related behavior evaluated with the elevated plus maze and stress-induced hyperthermia tests, and depression-like behavior estimated with the tail suspension test. Iodoacetamide-induced gastritis was associated with gastric mucosal surface damage and an increase in gastric myeloperoxidase activity, this increase being significantly larger in female mice than in male mice. The rectal temperature of male mice treated with iodoacetamide was enhanced, whereas that of female mice was diminished. The circulating levels of corticosterone were reduced by 65% in female mice treated with iodoacetamide but did not significantly change in male mice. On the behavioral level, iodoacetamide treatment caused a decrease in nocturnal home-cage activity, drinking and feeding. While depression-related behavior remained unaltered following induction of gastritis, behavioral indices of anxiety were significantly enhanced in female but not male mice. There was no correlation between the estrous cycle and anxiety as well as circulating corticosterone. Radiotracer experiments revealed that iodoacetamide did not readily enter the brain, the blood-brain ratio being 20:1. Collectively, these data show that iodoacetamide treatment causes gastritis in a gender-related manner, its severity being significantly greater in female than in male mice. The induction of gastritis in female mice is associated with a reduction of circulating corticosterone and an enforcement of behavioral indices of anxiety. Gastric inflammation thus has a distinct gender-dependent influence on emotional-affective behavior and its neuroendocrine control.

Behavioural and expressional phenotyping of nitric oxide synthase-I knockdown animals.

The gaseous messenger nitric oxide (NO) has been implicated in a wide range of behaviors, including aggression, anxiety, depression, and cognitive functioning. To further elucidate the physiological role of NO and its down-stream mechanisms, we conducted behavioral and expressional phenotyping of mice lacking the neuronal isoform of nitric oxide synthase (NOS-I), the major source of NO in the central nervous system. No differences were observed in activity-related parameters; in contrast to the a priori hypothesis, derived from pharmacological treatments, depression-related tests (Forced Swim Test, Learned Helplessness) also yielded no significantly different results. A subtle anxiolytic phenotype however was present, with knockdown mice displaying a higher open arm time as compared to their respective wildtypes, yet all other investigated anxiety-related parameters were unchanged. The most prominent feature however was gender-independent cognitive impairment in spatial learning and memory, as assessed by the Water Maze test and an automatized holeboard paradigm. No significant dysregulation of monoamine transporters was evidenced by qRT PCR. To further examine the underlying molecular mechanisms, the transcriptome of knockdown animals was thus examined in the hippocampus, striatum and cerebellum by microarray analysis. A set of >120 differentially expressed genes was identified, whereat the hippocampus and the striatum showed similar expressional profiles as compared to the cerebellum in hierarchical clustering. Among the most significantly up-regulated genes were Peroxiredoxon 3, Atonal homologue 1, Kcnj1, Kcnj8, CCAAT/enhancer binding protein (C/EBP), alpha, 3 genes involved in GABA(B) signalling and, intriguingly, the glucocorticoid receptor GR. While GABAergic genes might underlie reduced anxiety, dysregulation of the glucocorticoid receptor can well contribute to a blunted stress response as found in NOS1 knockdown mice. Furthermore, by CREB inhibition, glucocorticoid receptor upregulation could at least partially explain cognitive deficits in these animals. Taken together, NOS1 knockdown mice display a characteristic behavioural profile consisting of reduced anxiety and impaired learning and memory, paralleled by differential expression of the glucocorticoid receptor and GABAergic genes. Further research has to assess the value of these mice as animal models e.g. for Alzheimer's disease or attention deficit disorder, in order to clarify a possible pathophysiological role of NO therein.

Endogenous neuropeptide Y depresses the afferent signaling of gastric acid challenge to the mouse brainstem via neuropeptide Y type Y2 and Y4 receptors.

Vagal afferents signal gastric acid challenge to the nucleus tractus solitarii of the rat brainstem. This study investigated whether nucleus tractus solitarii neurons in the mouse also respond to gastric acid challenge and whether this chemonociceptive input is modified by neuropeptide Y acting via neuropeptide Y receptors of type Y2 or Y4. The gastric mucosa of female mice was exposed to different concentrations of HCl or saline, excitation of neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarii visualized by c-Fos immunohistochemistry, gastric emptying deduced from the gastric volume recovery, and gastric lesion formation evaluated by planimetry. Relative to saline, intragastric HCl (0.15-0.35 M) increased the number of c-Fos-expressing cells in the nucleus tractus solitarii in a concentration-dependent manner, inhibited gastric emptying but failed to cause significant hemorrhagic injury in the stomach. Mice in which the Y2 or Y4 receptor gene had been deleted responded to gastric acid challenge with a significantly higher expression of c-Fos in the nucleus tractus solitarii, the increases amounting to 39 and 31%, respectively. The HCl-induced inhibition of gastric emptying was not altered by deletion of the Y2 or Y4 receptor gene. BIIE0246 ((S)-N2-[[1-[2-[4-[(R,S)-5,11-dihydro-6(6H)-oxodibenz[b,e] azepin-11-yl]-1-piperazinyl]-2-oxoethyl]cyclopentyl] acetyl]-N-[2-[1,2-dihydro-3,5 (4H)-dioxo-1,2-diphenyl-3H-1,2,4-triazol-4-yl]ethyl]-argininamide; 0.03 mmol/kg s.c.), a Y2 receptor antagonist which does not cross the blood-brain barrier, did not modify the c-Fos response to gastric acid challenge. The Y2 receptor agonist peptide YY-(3-36) (0.1 mg/kg intraperitoneally) likewise failed to alter the gastric HCl-evoked expression of c-Fos in the nucleus tractus solitarii. BIIE0246, however, prevented the effect of peptide YY-(3-36) to inhibit gastric acid secretion as deduced from measurement of intragastric pH. The current data indicate that gastric challenge with acid concentrations that do not induce overt injury but inhibit gastric emptying is signaled to the mouse nucleus tractus solitarii. Endogenous neuropeptide Y acting via Y2 and Y4 receptors depresses the afferent input to the nucleus tractus solitarii by a presumably central site of action.

Reduced anxiety-like and depression-related behavior in neuropeptide Y Y4 receptor knockout mice.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) acting through Y1 receptors reduces anxiety- and depression-like behavior in rodents, whereas Y2 receptor stimulation has the opposite effect. This study addressed the implication of Y4 receptors in emotional behavior by comparing female germ line Y4 knockout (Y4-/-) mice with control and germ line Y2-/- animals. Anxiety- and depression-like behavior was assessed with the open field (OF), elevated plus maze (EPM), stress-induced hyperthermia (SIH) and tail suspension tests (TST), respectively. Learning and memory were evaluated with the object recognition test (ORT). In the OF and EPM, both Y4-/- and Y2-/- mice exhibited reduced anxiety-related behavior and enhanced locomotor activity relative to control animals. Locomotor activity in a familiar environment was unchanged in Y4-/- but reduced in Y2-/- mice. The basal rectal temperature exhibited diurnal and genotype-related alterations. Control mice had temperature minima at noon and midnight, whereas Y4-/- and Y2-/- mice displayed only one temperature minimum at noon. The magnitude of SIH was related to time of the day and genotype in a complex manner. In the TST, the duration of immobility was significantly shorter in Y4-/- and Y2-/- mice than in controls. Object memory 6 h after initial exposure to the ORT was impaired in Y2-/- but not in Y4-/- mice, relative to control mice. These results show that genetic deletion of Y4 receptors, like that of Y2 receptors, reduces anxiety-like and depression-related behavior. Unlike Y2 receptor knockout, Y4 receptor knockout does not impair object memory. We propose that Y4 receptors play an important role in the regulation of behavioral homeostasis.