Systematic Review Examining the Behavior Change Techniques in Medication Adherence Intervention Studies Among People With Type 2 Diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Although previous systematic reviews have studied medication adherence interventions among people with Type 2 diabetes (PwT2D), no intervention has been found to improve medication adherence consistently. Furthermore, inconsistent and poor reporting of intervention description has made understanding, replication, and evaluation of intervention challenging. PURPOSE: We aimed to identify the behavior change techniques (BCTs) and characteristics of successful medication adherence interventions among PwT2D. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted on Medline, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, and Scopus. Studies were included if they were randomized controlled trials with BCT-codable interventions designed to influence adherence to anti-diabetic medication for PwT2D aged 18 years old and above and have medication adherence measure as an outcome. RESULTS: Fifty-five studies were included. Successful interventions tend to target medication adherence only, involve pharmacists as the interventionist, contain "Credible source" (BCT 9.1), "Instruction on how to perform the behaviour" (BCT 4.1), "Social support (practical)" (BCT 3.2), "Action planning" (BCT 1.4), and/ or "Information about health consequences" (BCT 5.1). Very few interventions described its context, used theory, examined adherence outcomes during the follow-up period after an intervention has ended, or were tailored to address specific barriers of medication adherence. CONCLUSION: We identified specific BCTs and characteristics that are commonly reported in successful medication adherence interventions, which can facilitate the development of future interventions. Our review highlighted the need to consider and clearly describe different dimensions of context, theory, fidelity, and tailoring in an intervention.

Medication is the mainstay treatment for diabetes. However, the use of anti-diabetic oral medications and/or injections may be intrusive, inconvenient, and complicated, leading to poor medication adherence, which occurs in about 50% of patients. Medication adherence is the extent to which a person's medication-taking behavior corresponds with agreed recommendations from a healthcare provider and is associated with suboptimal health outcomes and increased healthcare expenditure. Interventions to improve adherence have not been consistently effective or well described, which makes it difficult to ascertain what works best. In this study, we aimed to identify the behavior change techniques (BCTs) and characteristics of successful medication adherence interventions among adults with Type 2 diabetes. BCTs are active ingredients in an intervention that regulate medication adherence and have standardized definitions. After searching 7 databases systematically, we analyzed 55 studies published in January 2018­March 2022. We found that the more effective interventions were those which had a sole focus on medication adherence, involved pharmacists, and contained specific BCTs, namely "Credible source," "Instruction on how to perform the behaviour," "Social support (practical)," "Action planning," and/or "information about health consequences." These specific BCTs and characteristics can be considered in future interventions for improving medication adherence.

Applying narrative medicine to prepare empathetic healthcare providers in undergraduate pharmacy education in Singapore: a mixed methods study.

BACKGROUND: Narrative medicine demonstrated positive impact on empathy in medicine and nursing students. However, this pedagogical approach had not been evaluated in pharmacy education. This study sought to apply and evaluate the narrative medicine approach in extending empathy in Asian undergraduate pharmacy students. METHODS: Narrative medicine was applied through workshops which used narratives of people with different experiences and perspectives. First-year undergraduate pharmacy students who volunteered and attended these workshops formed the intervention group (N = 31) and the remaining first-year cohort formed the control group (N = 112). A sequential explanatory mixed methods approach was adopted in which quantitative methods were first used to measure impact on pharmacy students' empathy using the Jefferson Scale of Empathy- Health Professions Student (JSE-HPS), and qualitative methods (i.e. group interviews) were then used to assess pharmacy students' emotional responses to narratives, and the perspectives of pharmacy students and faculty of this pedagogical approach. RESULTS: There was no difference in JSE-HPS scores between intervention and control groups across baseline (i.e. upon matriculation), pre-intervention, and post-intervention timepoints. Pharmacy students in the intervention group had lower scores in Factor 3 ("Standing in People's Shoes") following the intervention. Five themes, guided by internal and external factors in cognition, emerged from the Group Interviews: (1) incongruence between students' motivation and faculty's perception, (2) learning context, (3) academic context, (4) cognitive system, and (5) affective system. Themes 1, 4 and 5 referred to internal factors such as students' motivation, perceived learnings, and feelings. Themes 2 and 3 referred to external factors including workshop materials, activities, content, and facilitation. CONCLUSION: This study is the first to demonstrate that pharmacy students engaged with the narrative medicine approach as narratives elicited emotional responses, exposed them to diverse perspectives, and deepened their appreciation of the importance of empathy and complexities of understanding patients' perspectives. Scaffolded educational interventions using narratives and real-life patient encounters, alongside longitudinal measurements of empathy, are necessary to bring about meaningful and sustained improvements in empathy.

Development of an Item Bank to Measure Medication Adherence: Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Medication adherence is important in managing the progression of chronic diseases. A promising approach to reduce cognitive burden when measuring medication adherence lies in the use of computer-adaptive tests (CATs) or in the development of shorter patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs). However, the lack of an item bank currently hampers this progress. OBJECTIVE: We aim to develop an item bank to measure general medication adherence. METHODS: Using the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis (PRISMA), articles published before October 2019 were retrieved from PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, the Cochrane Library, and Web of Science. Items from existing PROMs were classified and selected ("binned" and "winnowed") according to standards published by the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Cooperative Group. RESULTS: A total of 126 unique PROMs were identified from 213 studies in 48 countries. Items from the literature review (47 PROMs with 579 items for which permission has been obtained) underwent binning and winnowing. This resulted in 421 candidate items (77 extent of adherence and 344 reasons for adherence). CONCLUSIONS: We developed an item bank for measuring general medication adherence using items from validated PROMs. This will allow researchers to create new PROMs from selected items and provide the foundation to develop CATs.

Measurement Properties of Existing Patient-Reported Outcome Measures on Medication Adherence: Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Medication adherence is essential for improving the health outcomes of patients. Various patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) have been developed to measure medication adherence in patients. However, no study has summarized the psychometric properties of these PROMs to guide selection for use in clinical practice or research. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to evaluate the quality of the PROMs used to measure medication adherence. METHODS: This study was guided by the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) guidelines. Relevant articles were retrieved from the EMBASE, PubMed, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature) databases. The PROMs were then evaluated based on the COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement Instruments (COSMIN) guidelines. RESULTS: A total of 121 unique medication adherence PROMs from 214 studies were identified. Hypotheses testing for construct validity and internal consistency were the most frequently assessed measurement properties. PROMs with at least a moderate level of evidence for ≥5 measurement properties include the Adherence Starts with Knowledge 20, Compliance Questionnaire-Rheumatology, General Medication Adherence Scale, Hill-Bone Scale, Immunosuppressant Therapy Barrier Scale, Medication Adherence Reasons Scale (MAR-Scale) revised, 5-item Medication Adherence Rating Scale (MARS-5), 9-item MARS (MARS-9), 4-item Morisky Medication Adherence Scale (MMAS-4), 8-item MMAS (MMAS-8), Self-efficacy for Appropriate Medication Adherence Scale, Satisfaction with Iron Chelation Therapy, Test of Adherence to Inhalers, and questionnaire by Voils. The MAR-Scale revised, MMAS-4, and MMAS-8 have been administered electronically. CONCLUSIONS: This study identified 121 PROMs for medication adherence and provided synthesized evidence for the measurement properties of these PROMs. The findings from this study may assist clinicians and researchers in selecting suitable PROMs to assess medication adherence.

Anti-hypertensive medications and injurious falls in an older population of low socioeconomic status: a nested case-control study.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to determine whether the number of anti-hypertensive medication classes or any change in anti-hypertensive medication were associated with injurious fall among the community-dwelling older population of low socioeconomic status. METHODS: Using data from electronic medical records, we performed a nested case-control study among older Singapore residents (≥60) of low socioeconomic status (N = 210). Controls (n = 162) were matched to each case (n = 48) by age and gender. Variables with p < 0.10 in univariate analysis were included in multivariate analysis. We used conditional logistic regression to assess the associations of the number of anti-hypertensive medication classes and change in anti-hypertensive medication with injurious falls. We also performed stepwise regressions as sensitivity analyses. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS: The mean (±SD) age of participants was 78.1 (± 8.33) years; 127 (60.4%) were female, 189 (90.0%) were Chinese. Those on ≥2 anti-hypertensive medication classes had an increased risk of experiencing an injurious fall compared to those not on any anti-hypertensive medication (OR = 5.45; CI:1.49-19.93; p = 0.01). Among those who were taking anti-hypertensive medication, those who had a change in the medication 180-day prior to injurious fall had a significantly increased risk of experiencing an injurious fall compared to those that did not report any change in anti-hypertensive medication (OR = 3.88; CI:1.23-12.19; p = 0.02). Sensitivity analyses generated consistent findings. CONCLUSION: Both ≥2 anti-hypertensive medication classes and change in anti-hypertensive medication were associated with an increased risk of experiencing an injurious fall among the older population of low socioeconomic status. Our findings could guide prescribers to exercise caution in the initiation of anti-hypertensive medications or in making medication changes, especially among the older population of low socioeconomic status.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of reported adverse events of long-term intranasal oxytocin treatment for autism spectrum disorder.

Recent studies have suggested oxytocin as a possible drug to treat social deficits caused by autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but the safety of intranasal oxytocin in autistic patients has not been established. The aim of this review was to characterize the side-effect profile of long-term intranasal oxytocin in treatment of ASD compared to placebo. All randomized controlled trials of intranasal oxytocin in the treatment of ASD published before 1 January 2017 that reported safety data were identified from databases, including PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and International Pharmaceutical Abstract. Relevant data from the selected studies were then extracted for meta-analysis to estimate the pooled risk ratio for the most common adverse events. Descriptive analysis of severe adverse events was also conducted. Of the 223 participants in the five included studies, 123 were given oxytocin and 100 were given placebos. Nasal discomfort (14.3%), tiredness (7.2%), irritability (9.0%), diarrhea (4.5%), and skin irritation (4.5%) were the most common adverse events. None of these common adverse events was statistically associated with treatment allocation according to meta-analysis using pooled data (all P-values > 0.1). Five severe adverse events were reported, namely aggression (one in placebo, two in oxytocin) and seizures (one in placebo, one in oxytocin). Results from this systematic review support intranasal oxytocin as well tolerated and safe for use in the ASD population. Larger clinical trials should be conducted to establish the efficacy of intranasal oxytocin as a treatment of ASD.

Top 10 Signs and Symptoms of Psychotropic Adverse Drug Events to Monitor in Residents of Long-Term Care Facilities.

OBJECTIVES: To produce a consensus list of the top 10 signs and symptoms suggestive of adverse drug events (ADEs) for monitoring in residents of long-term care facilities (LTCFs) who use antipsychotics, benzodiazepines, or antidepressants. DESIGN: A 3-round Delphi study. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Geriatricians, psychiatrists, pharmacologists, general practitioners, pharmacists, nurses, and caregivers from 13 Asia Pacific, European, and North American countries. METHODS: Three survey rounds were completed between April and June 2023. In Round 1, participants indicated their level of agreement on a 9-point Likert scale on whether 41 signs or symptoms identified in a systematic review should be routinely monitored. Participants considered signs and symptoms that reduce quality of life or cause significant harm, are observable or measurable by nurses or care workers, and can be assessed at a single time point. Round 1 statements were included in a list for prioritization in Round 3 if ≥ 70% of participants responded ≥7 on the Likert scale. Statements were excluded if ≤ 30% of participants responded ≥7. In Round 2, participants indicated their level of agreement with statements that did not reach initial consensus, plus amended statements based on Round 1 participant feedback. Round 2 statements were included in Round 3 if ≥ 50% of the participants responded ≥7 on the Likert scale. In Round 3, participants prioritized the signs and symptoms. RESULTS: Forty-four participants (93.6%) completed all 3 rounds. Four of 41 signs and symptoms reached consensus for inclusion after Round 1, and 9 after Round 2. The top 10 signs and symptoms prioritized in Round 3 were recent falls, daytime drowsiness or sleepiness, abnormal movements (eg, shaking or stiffness), confusion or disorientation, balance problems, dizziness, postural hypotension, reduced self-care, restlessness, and dry mouth. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The top 10 signs and symptoms provide a basis for proactive monitoring for psychotropic ADEs.

The Effects of Medium Chain Triglyceride for Alzheimer's Disease Related Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: The current lack of effective drug therapies for Alzheimer's disease (AD) has prompted researchers to seek alternative nutritional therapies, such as medium chain triglycerides (MCTs). However, results are inconclusive. OBJECTIVE: This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to summarize current evidence on the effect of MCT on cognitive function in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or AD. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted up until December 16, 2022, to identify human interventions reporting the effects of MCT on cognitive functioning of MCI or AD patients. 995 non-duplicated publications were identified, of which nine (n = 10 studies) met the inclusion criteria. RESULTS: Meta-analysis showed cognitive improvements in general (SMD = 0.64; 95% CI [0.05, 1.24]), but not in memory, language, and attention domains after oral MCT administration, compared to placebo. The effect of MCT was greater among APOEɛ4 (-) subjects than APOEɛ4 (+) subjects (SMD = 1.87; 95% CI [0.35, 3.40]). CONCLUSION: This review provides some evidence that treatment with MCT could improve general cognitive function in APOEɛ4 (-) cognitive impaired patients. Better characterized clinical studies are warranted before making a definitive conclusion on the use of MCT for MCI and AD management.

Development and validation of the INappropriate solid oral dosaGE form modification aSsessmenT (INGEST) Algorithm using data of patients with medication dysphagia from a neurology ward and nursing home in Singapore.

OBJECTIVES: This study aims to develop and validate a novel implicit tool to assist clinicians in resource-limited settings to promptly assess suitability for modification of solid oral dosage forms (SODFs) during medication prescribing, review and/or administration for patients with dysphagia. DESIGN: Literature review and a group discussion were conducted to elicit items for the construction of the INappropriate solid oral dosaGE form modification aSsessmenT (INGEST) algorithm. For its validation, inter-rater reliability among three independent users was evaluated. Accuracy of users' ratings was also evaluated against the screening results using the Don't Rush to Crush handbook. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Three pharmacists were involved in the development and another three were involved in the validation of the INGEST algorithm using anonymised medication records of 50 patients in a nursing home and a hospital ward; only SODFs that were modified prior to administration were evaluated. RESULTS: Following literature review, considerations included by consensus in the INGEST algorithm were the presence of special coating or modified release characteristics of the SODF medications, hazardous nature and taste of the active ingredients, manufacturer's advice and use of tube feeding. Of the 381 SODF medications evaluated, 26 (6.8%) were identified by at least one pharmacist to be inappropriate for modification. Gwet's AC among the three pharmacists in identifying SODF medications inappropriate for modification was 0.75 (p<0.001, 95% CI 0.63 to 0.87), and 0.80 (p<0.001, 95% CI 0.71 to 0.89) in identifying SODF medications appropriate for modification, suggesting substantial inter-rater agreement. Overall accuracy of each pharmacist's ratings was high, ranging from 93.7% to 95.6%. CONCLUSIONS: The implicit INGEST algorithm has potential for use by clinicians in nursing home and hospital settings for determining suitability of SODF medications for modification. Further studies should be conducted to assess its external validity and utilisation in daily practice for improving clinical outcomes for patients with SODF dysphagia.

Impact of an aging simulation workshop with different debrief methods on the development of empathy in pharmacy undergraduates.

INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to investigate a workshop's impact on empathy development, compare potential differences in effects among different workshop debrief methods, and identify if any demographic factors predict empathy development. METHODS: Participants were first randomly divided to receive either a didactic lecture, a jigsaw approach, or a fishbowl approach for the debrief method. In their respective arms, participants experienced simulation stations followed by their assigned debrief. Of 167 year-two National University of Singapore pharmacy undergraduates, 130 participated in the study and completed the Jefferson Scale of Empathy-Health Professions Student (JSE-HPS) version before and after the workshop. RESULTS: The JSE-HPS scores were significantly increased post-workshop; however, no significant differences in pre-post workshop score changes were observed among the three approaches. Overall, no demographic factor was identified to have significantly influenced empathy development. CONCLUSIONS: The study demonstrated that the simulation workshop developed empathy among pharmacy students regardless of the debrief method employed within the workshop. Future work would be necessary to assess if there are long-term impacts of different debrief methods on empathy development.

Refill Adherence Measures and Its Association with Economic, Clinical, and Humanistic Outcomes Among Pediatric Patients: A Systematic Review.

Although refill adherence measures (RAMs) are widely reviewed on their use among adult patients, existing reviews on adherence among children have only focused on self-report measures and electronic monitoring. Hence, this systematic review aims to examine the use of RAMs and their association with economic, clinical, and humanistic outcomes (ECHO) among pediatric patients. A literature search was conducted in Pubmed, Embase, CINAHL, and PsycINFO. Studies published in English involving subjects aged ≤18 years were included if RAMs were analyzed with ECHO. Of the 35 included studies, the majority (n = 33) were conducted in high-income countries. Asthma was the most common condition (n = 9) studied. Overall, 60.6% of 33 clinical outcomes reported among 22 studies was positive (improved clinical outcomes with improved adherence), while 21.9% of 32 economic outcomes reported among 16 studies was positive (reduced healthcare utilization or cost outcomes with improved adherence). Only four studies evaluated the relationship of adherence with 11 humanistic outcomes, where the majority (72.7%) were considered unclear. RAMs are associated with ECHO and can be considered for use in the pediatric population. Future studies could explore the use of RAMs in low-income countries, and the association of RAMs with quality of life.

Students' perceptions of an in-house developed pharmacy serious game for professional skills training.

Background: An in-house three-dimensional (3D) multiplayer online role-playing game was developed for professional skills training of pharmacy students. Students play the game in a post-apocalyptic world to save humankind from zombies. They solve virtual patient encounters through visual and motion-capture technologies. Their gaming perceptions and experiences were investigated. Method: A self-administered questionnaire obtained participants' demographics, gaming interests, perceptions of game effectiveness, preferences on gaming elements and gameplay experience through the Game Engagement Questionnaire (GEQ). Pre-gameplay and post-gameplay assessments were tracked to assess student learning. Descriptive statistics and paired sample t-tests were used for analysis. Results: Fifty-five students were recruited. Two-thirds of the gameplay group (67.9%) liked the post-apocalyptic fantasy settings and heroic storyline (66.0%). Three quarters liked the modern setting (73.1%), authentic plots (73.5%) and plot animations (72.3%). Participants felt the game was effective in training health communication and patient history-taking skills (81.8%). Participants' test scores for counselling increased from 66.1%±7.6% (pre-gameplay) to 70.3%±8.0% (post-gameplay, p=0.004). The highest scoring GEQ dimension was sensory and imaginative immersion (2.92±0.74). Conclusion: Students found the game useful for pharmacy professional skills training. With proper implementation, this game can become a useful tool to enhance student learning and gear them towards clinical practices.

CHI study: protocol for an observational cohort study on ageing and mental health in community-dwelling older adults.

INTRODUCTION: Ageing is associated with a multitude of healthcare issues including dementia, depression, frailty, morbidity associated with chronic disease and high healthcare utilisation. With Singapore's population projected to age significantly over the next two decades, it has become increasingly important to understand the disease burden and etiological process among older adults. The Community Health and Intergenerational study aims to holistically examine ageing in place by investigating the resilience and vulnerability factors of the ageing process in the biological, psychological and social domains within the environment. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: Using a cohort multiple randomised controlled trial design, comprehensive health profiles of community-dwelling older adults will be collected. The objective is to recruit 1000 participants (aged 60-99 years) living in the western region of Singapore within a period of 3 years (2018-2020). Assessments include basic sociodemographic, physical health and function (cardiac, oral and blood profiles and visual function), cognitive functioning, daily functioning, physical fitness, emotional state, free-flowing speech, sleep quality, social connectedness, caregiver burden, intergenerational communication, quality of life, life satisfaction, attitudes to ageing and gratitude and compassion. Results from the cohort will enable future studies to identify at-risk groups and develop interventions to improve the physical and mental health and quality of life of older adults. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Approval of the cohort study by the National University of Singapore Institutional Review Board (NUS-IRB Reference code: H-17-047) was obtained on 12 October 2017. Written consent will be obtained from all participants. Findings from the cohort study will be disseminated by publication of peer-reviewed manuscripts, presentations at scientific meetings and conferences with local stakeholders.

Process Evaluation of the Community Pharmacist-Led Allergic Rhinitis Management (C-PhARM) Service in Singapore.

A community pharmacist-led allergic rhinitis management (C-PhARM) service involving structured patient assessment, individualised recommendations and follow-up was developed in Watson's Personal Care Stores Pte Ltd (Singapore) to ensure optimal allergic rhinitis (AR) self-management and appropriate use of intranasal corticosteroids (INC) in Singapore. This retrospective study aimed to evaluate the C-PhARM service processes and identify areas for improving the quality of service. Relevant data was extracted from archived clinical forms, customer satisfaction surveys and pharmacist quality improvement surveys to evaluate the "reach", "recruitment", "context" and "fidelity" of service implementation, as well as the "intervention delivered" and "received". Over the nine months since the launch of the C-PhARM service in April 2016, 45 customers were enrolled, and 32 (71.1%) customers had received at least one follow-up. Recommendations provided at baseline included oral antihistamines (32, 71.1%), INC sprays (28, 62.2%) and counselling on non-pharmacological strategies (27, 60.0%). Among the 29 customers who exited the service, 20 (69%) responded to a satisfaction survey. Although customers deemed pharmacists to be professional and knowledgeable in providing clear and detailed information about AR, pharmacists reported a lack of protected time and interest from customers as service barriers. Sufficient protected time is required for pharmacists to effectively provide clinical service in a community pharmacy.

A Point Prevalence Study of Antimicrobial Use and Practice Among Nursing Homes in Singapore.

BACKGROUND: Inappropriate antimicrobial use is a major cause for the development of antimicrobial resistance in nursing homes (NHs); however, little is known about antimicrobial use at NHs in Singapore compared with NHs in other countries. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence, practice and challenges of antimicrobial prescribing in Singapore NHs compared with those in other countries. METHODS: A point prevalence survey (PPS) was conducted from August to October 2017. Data on antimicrobial use and the quality of documentation were retrieved from medical and/or medication records of NH residents. Informed consent was obtained from the NH management. RESULTS: Nine of 73 NHs in Singapore, with a total of 1760 residents, participated in the PPS. The prevalence of oral antibiotic and topical antimicrobial use was 2% and 11%, respectively, and the worldwide point prevalence of antimicrobial prescribing in NHs ranged from 1-17% (median 8%). The key challenges identified locally were different from those of overseas NHs, including incomplete documentation of antimicrobial duration and indication of use, as well as the high prevalence of topical antimicrobial use. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of oral antibiotic use in NHs in Singapore was lower, while topical antimicrobial use was higher, compared with NHs in other countries. Variability in antimicrobial prescribing and challenges in practice among local and overseas NHs implied that a comprehensive PPS could be beneficial to aid in the design of effective and practicable antimicrobial stewardship strategies appropriate for the NH.

Drug-related problems associated with community-dwelling older persons living alone in Singapore.

Background Older persons living alone have been associated with poorer health outcomes and higher mortality rate. However, little is known about the drug related problems (DRPs) faced by this population group in Singapore. Objectives This study aims to elucidate the prevalence and type of DRPs associated with older persons living alone. Setting Eleven Senior Activity Centers in Singapore. Method Individuals aged above 55 years, taking at least one oral chronic medication and living in the housing estate served by the Senior Activity Centers were recruited to participate in an individual interviewer-administered cross-sectional survey. Those who were unable to comprehend the survey or communicate their responses fully were excluded. DRPs were identified by the interviewers and reported using a modified DOCUMENT system. Main outcome measure The main outcome measure was the difference in prevalence and types of DRPs between survey participants with different living arrangements. Results Among 360 respondents, 152 (42.2%) were older persons living alone. A higher prevalence (61.2% vs. 47.6%, adjusted OR = 1.86 [1.12-3.10], p = 0.016) and mean number of DRPs (1.23 ± 1.4 vs. 0.95 ± 1.33, p = 0.018) were observed among older persons living alone in comparison with those who were not living alone. Specifically, those living alone were more likely to have DRP related to the category 'Taking too little' (adjusted OR = 2.32 [1.28-4.20], p = 0.006) and which involved the use of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (adjusted OR = 2.78 [1.16-6.69], p = 0.022). Conclusion Besides having a significantly higher prevalence of DRP, older persons living alone were more likely to be non-adherent to their medications, particularly statins. Targeted interventions to reduce these DRPs and ensure appropriate management of chronic conditions should be derived, especially for those who lack the ability to help themselves.

A cultural adaptation and validation study of a self-report measure of the extent of and reasons for medication nonadherence among patients with diabetes in Singapore.

BACKGROUND: This self-report measure is a new instrument to measure the extent of and reasons for medication adherence separately. However, few studies have assessed its psychometric properties in diabetic patients and also in Asian populations. OBJECTIVES: To validate this self-report measure in diabetic patients in Singapore. METHODS: We collected data prospectively using a questionnaire among 393 diabetic patients from hospitals in Singapore from July 2018 to January 2019. Using the COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement INstruments framework, we assessed face validity, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, structural validity, and measurement error. We tested four a priori hypotheses on correlation of extent score with patient-reported outcome measures to assess construct validity. We examined cross-cultural validity via measurement invariance across gender, age groups, and languages. RESULTS: We performed cognitive interviews with 30 consenting English-literate, Chinese-literate, and Malay-literate (10 patients per language) diabetic patients (age range 48-76 years, 53% male, disease duration range 1-30 years) and face validity was supported. Among 393 patients (mean age: 59.4±12.2 years, 50.9% female, 52.4% Chinese), we showed moderate internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha =0.67) and test-retest reliability (intra-class coefficient=0.56 [95% CI 0.37-0.70]). We calculated smallest detectable change as 0.80. We established construct validity by meeting all four hypotheses. We showed structural validity as confirmatory factor analysis confirmed a one-factor model, with excellent fit statistics (Comparative Fit Index=1.0; Tucker-Lewis Index=1.0; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation<0.001; Standardized Root Mean Residuals<0.001). Analysis of cross-cultural validity supported configural invariance model but not metric invariance and scalar invariance model. Caution must be taken against directly comparing extent scores across gender, age groups, and languages. CONCLUSION: This self-report measure is valid and reliable in measuring medication adherence in diabetic patients in Singapore.

Herbopolis - A mobile serious game to educate players on herbal medicines.

BACKGROUND: Use of herbal medicines is common. There is a need for education in this area. Mobile games are useful educational tools for motivating learning. A mobile game on herbal medicines can potentially enhance players' herb-related knowledge. Our objective was to develop a mobile game to motivate players to learn more about herbal medicines. METHODS: Game development comprised of storyboarding, user interface design, database development, server development and distribution. A pilot usability study was conducted for the game prototype. Data was gathered through user registration, background data collection and a post-game survey containing a quiz on herbs encountered in the game. Mann-Whitney U test, chi-squared test and Spearman's correlation coefficient were used for data analysis. RESULTS: "Herbopolis" is an in-house developed mobile game of the simulation genre. Players are tasked to manage a city specializing in the production and sale of herbal products. Nineteen out of 24 participants downloaded and played the game, and completed the post-game survey. Heuristic evaluations for usability, playability and educability were generally positive. Strong positive associations were observed between player level (r = 0.810, p < 0.001) and gameplay time (r = 0.757, p < 0.001) with quiz scores. Female players scored higher in the quiz (p = .044), played for more days (p = .010) and attained higher levels (p = .010) than male players. CONCLUSION: Players are motivated to learn about herb-related information through playing "Herbopolis". Our results support its use for improving knowledge on herbal medicines. Future game iterations to improve robustness and performance will likely to improve its reception and effectiveness in learning.

Antimicrobial use and drug-drug interactions among nursing home residents in Singapore: a multicentre prevalence study.

Background With the Ministry of Health's projected increase in nursing home beds and optimization of antimicrobial use in health care settings, it is therefore timely to consider baseline prevalence and patterns of antimicrobial use at nursing homes in Singapore as well as to evaluate the prevalence of potential clinically significant drug-drug interactions involving antimicrobials. Objective The primary objective was to determine the prevalence and patterns of antimicrobial use at nursing homes in Singapore. The secondary objective was to evaluate the prevalence of potential clinically significant drug-drug interactions involving antimicrobials. Setting Four nursing homes in Singapore. Method A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted among nursing home residents. The antimicrobial prevalence, defined daily doses, days of therapy, and potential drug-drug interactions were determined using data from archived resident medication prescribing and administration records. Main outcome measure Prevalence and patterns of antimicrobial use, drug-drug interactions involving antimicrobials. Results Among 707 residents (mean age: 80.7 ± 8.8 years, female: 57.1%), 10% used antimicrobials during the study month, with a 1-day point prevalence of 3%. The utilization rates of antimicrobials were 28.9 defined daily doses/1000 resident-days and 24.8 days of therapy/1000 resident-days. Potential drug-drug interactions involving antimicrobials were identified among 32 of the 70 (46%) residents who were prescribed antimicrobials. Of these, 26 (81%) residents had 43 potential clinically significant drug-drug interactions. Conclusions The prevalence and utilization rates of antimicrobial use in Singapore nursing homes appear to be low. Yet, potential clinically significant drug-drug interactions are prevalent.

Validation of a Drug-Related Problem Classification System for the Intermediate and Long-Term Care Setting in Singapore.

Background: This study aims to evaluate the inter-rater reliability and perceived usability of a newly developed drug-related problem (DRP) classification system for use by pharmacists in the intermediate and long-term care (ILTC) setting in Singapore. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional survey study involving the use of a self-administered questionnaire. All 55 pharmacists affiliated to the Pharmaceutical Society of Singapore (PSS) ILTC Pharmacists Workgroup who were above 21 years old and not authors of the classification system were invited to participate. The inter-rater reliability of participants' classification of 46 mock DRP cases using the new DRP classification system was determined using Fleiss's kappa (κ). Participants' perceived usability of the classification system was evaluated using six items with five-point Likert scales (1-"strongly disagree", 5-"strongly agree"). Results: Thirty-three pharmacists responded to the survey. Overall inter-rater reliability was found to be substantial (κ = 0.614; 95% CI: 0.611⁻0.617). All usability items received positive ratings ("strongly agree" or "agree") from at least 69% of participants. Conclusion: The new DRP classification system has substantial external validity and appears to be suitable for use by pharmacists to document and report DRPs in the ILTC setting in Singapore and facilitate evaluation of the impact of pharmaceutical care in the ILTC setting.