Progressive Degeneration and Adaptive Excitability in Dopamine D1 and D2 Receptor-Expressing Striatal Neurons Exposed to HIV-1 Tat and Morphine.

The striatum is especially vulnerable to HIV-1 infection, with medium spiny neurons (MSNs) exhibiting marked synaptodendritic damage that can be exacerbated by opioid use disorder. Despite known structural defects in MSNs co-exposed to HIV-1 Tat and opioids, the pathophysiological sequelae of sustained HIV-1 exposure and acute comorbid effects of opioids on dopamine D1 and D2 receptor-expressing (D1 and D2) MSNs are unknown. To address this question, Drd1-tdTomato- or Drd2-eGFP-expressing reporter and conditional HIV-1 Tat transgenic mice were interbred. MSNs in ex vivo slices from male mice were assessed by whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology and filled with biocytin to explore the functional and structural effects of progressive Tat and acute morphine exposure. Although the excitability of both D1 and D2 MSNs increased following 48 h of Tat exposure, D1 MSN firing rates decreased below control (Tat-) levels following 2 weeks and 1 month of Tat exposure but returned to control levels after 2 months. D2 neurons continued to display Tat-dependent increases in excitability at 2 weeks, but also returned to control levels following 1 and 2 months of Tat induction. Acute morphine exposure increased D1 MSN excitability irrespective of the duration of Tat exposure, while D2 MSNs were variably affected. That D1 and D2 MSN excitability would return to control levels was unexpected since both subpopulations displayed significant synaptodendritic degeneration and pathologic phospho-tau-Thr205 accumulation following 2 months of Tat induction. Thus, despite frank morphologic damage, D1 and D2 MSNs uniquely adapt to sustained Tat and acute morphine insults.

Chloride channels with ClC-1-like properties differentially regulate the excitability of dopamine receptor D1- and D2-expressing striatal medium spiny neurons.

Dynamic chloride (Cl-) regulation is critical for synaptic inhibition. In mature neurons, Cl- influx and extrusion are primarily controlled by ligand-gated anion channels (GABAA and glycine receptors) and the potassium chloride cotransporter K+-Cl- cotransporter 2 (KCC2), respectively. Here, we report for the first time, to our knowledge, a presence of a new source of Cl- influx in striatal neurons with properties similar to chloride voltage-gated channel 1 (ClC-1). Using whole cell patch-clamp recordings, we detected an outwardly rectifying voltage-dependent current that was impermeable to the large anion methanesulfonate (MsO-). The anionic current was sensitive to the ClC-1 inhibitor 9-anthracenecarboxylic acid (9-AC) and the nonspecific blocker phloretin. The mean fractions of anionic current inhibition by MsO-, 9-AC, and phloretin were not significantly different, indicating that anionic current was caused by active ClC-1-like channels. In addition, we found that Cl- current was not sensitive to the transmembrane protein 16A (TMEM16A; Ano1) inhibitor Ani9 and that the outward Cl- rectification was preserved even at a very high intracellular Ca2+ concentration (2 mM), indicating that TMEM16B (Ano2) did not contribute to the total current. Western blotting and immunohistochemical analyses confirmed the presence of ClC-1 channels in the striatum mainly localized to the somata of striatal neurons. Finally, we found that 9-AC decreased action potential firing frequencies and increased excitability in medium spiny neurons (MSNs) expressing dopamine type 1 (D1) and type 2 (D2) receptors in the brain slices, respectively. We conclude that ClC-1-like channels are preferentially located at the somata of MSNs, are functional, and can modulate neuronal excitability.

Regulation of exosome release by lysosomal acid ceramidase in coronary arterial endothelial cells: Role of TRPML1 channel.

Lysosomal acid ceramidase (AC) has been reported to determine multivesicular body (MVB) fate and exosome secretion in different mammalian cells including coronary arterial endothelial cells (CAECs). However, this AC-mediated regulation of exosome release from CAECs and associated underlying mechanism remain poorly understood. In the present study, we hypothesized that AC controls lysosomal Ca2+ release through TRPML1 channel to regulate exosome release in murine CAECs. To test this hypothesis, we isolated and cultured CAECs from WT/WT and endothelial cell-specific Asah1 gene (gene encoding AC) knockout mice. Using these CAECs, we first demonstrated a remarkable increase in exosome secretion and significant reduction of lysosome-MVB interaction in CAECs lacking Asah1 gene compared to those cells from WT/WT mice. ML-SA1, a TRPML1 channel agonist, was found to enhance lysosome trafficking and increase lysosome-MVB interaction in WT/WT CAECs, but not in CAECs lacking Asah1 gene. However, sphingosine, an AC-derived sphingolipid, was able to increase lysosome movement and lysosome-MVB interaction in CAECs lacking Asah1 gene, leading to reduced exosome release from these cells. Moreover, Asah1 gene deletion was shown to substantially inhibit lysosomal Ca2+ release through suppression of TRPML1 channel activity in CAECs. Sphingosine as an AC product rescued the function of TRPML1 channel in CAECs lacking Asah1 gene. These results suggest that Asah1 gene defect and associated deficiency of AC activity may inhibit TRPML1 channel activity, thereby reducing MVB degradation by lysosome and increasing exosome release from CAECs. This enhanced exosome release from CAECs may contribute to the development of coronary arterial disease under pathological conditions.

TRPM4 channel inhibitors 9-phenanthrol and glibenclamide differentially decrease guinea pig detrusor smooth muscle whole-cell cation currents and phasic contractions.

Nonselective cation channels, consistent with transient receptor potential melastatin-4 (TRPM4), regulate detrusor smooth muscle (DSM) function. TRPM4 channels can exist as homomers or assemble with sulfonylurea receptors (SURs) as complexes. We evaluated contributions of TRPM4/SUR-TRPM4 channels to DSM excitability and contractility by examining the effects of TRPM4/SUR-TRPM4 channel modulators 9-phenanthrol, glibenclamide, and diazoxide on freshly-isolated guinea pig DSM cells (amphotericin-B perforated patch-clamp electrophysiology) and mucosa-free DSM strips (isometric tension recordings). In DSM cells, complete removal of extracellular Na+ decreased voltage-step-induced cation (non-K+ selective) currents. At high positive membrane potentials, 9-phenanthrol at 100 µM attenuated voltage step-induced currents more effectively than at 30 µM, revealing concentration-dependent, voltage-sensitive inhibition. In comparison to 9-phenanthrol, glibenclamide (100 µM) displayed lower inhibition of cation currents. In the presence of glibenclamide (100 µM), 9-phenanthrol (100 µM) further decreased the currents. The SUR-TRPM4 complex activator diazoxide (100-300 µM) weakly inhibited the currents. 9-Phenanthrol, but not glibenclamide or diazoxide, increased cell capacitance (a cell surface area indicator). In contractility studies, glibenclamide displayed lower potencies than 9-phenanthrol attenuating spontaneous and 20 mM KCl-induced DSM phasic contractions. While both compounds showed similar maximum inhibitions on DSM spontaneous phasic contractions, glibenclamide was generally less efficacious on 20 mM KCl-induced phasic contractions. In summary, the observed differential effects of 9-phenanthrol and glibenclamide on DSM excitability and contractility support unique mechanisms for the two compounds. The data suggest that SUR-TRPM4 complexes do not contribute to DSM function. This study advances our understanding of pharmacological effects of glibenclamide and 9-phenanthrol on DSM cell cation currents.

Congenital myopathy results from misregulation of a muscle Ca2+ channel by mutant Stac3.

Skeletal muscle contractions are initiated by an increase in Ca2+ released during excitation-contraction (EC) coupling, and defects in EC coupling are associated with human myopathies. EC coupling requires communication between voltage-sensing dihydropyridine receptors (DHPRs) in transverse tubule membrane and Ca2+ release channel ryanodine receptor 1 (RyR1) in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). Stac3 protein (SH3 and cysteine-rich domain 3) is an essential component of the EC coupling apparatus and a mutation in human STAC3 causes the debilitating Native American myopathy (NAM), but the nature of how Stac3 acts on the DHPR and/or RyR1 is unknown. Using electron microscopy, electrophysiology, and dynamic imaging of zebrafish muscle fibers, we find significantly reduced DHPR levels, functionality, and stability in stac3 mutants. Furthermore, stac3NAM myofibers exhibited increased caffeine-induced Ca2+ release across a wide range of concentrations in the absence of altered caffeine sensitivity as well as increased Ca2+ in internal stores, which is consistent with increased SR luminal Ca2+ These findings define critical roles for Stac3 in EC coupling and human disease.

Extracellular pH and intracellular phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate control Cl- currents in guinea pig detrusor smooth muscle cells.

Cl- channels serve as key regulators of excitability and contractility in vascular, intestinal, and airway smooth muscle cells. We recently reported a Cl- conductance in detrusor smooth muscle (DSM) cells. Here, we used the whole cell patch-clamp technique to further characterize biophysical properties and physiological regulators of the Cl- current in freshly isolated guinea pig DSM cells. The Cl- current demonstrated outward rectification arising from voltage-dependent gating of Cl- channels rather than the Cl- transmembrane gradient. An exposure of DSM cells to hypotonic extracellular solution (Δ 165 mOsm challenge) did not increase the Cl- current providing strong evidence that volume-regulated anion channels do not contribute to the Cl- current in DSM cells. The Cl- current was monotonically dependent on extracellular pH, larger and lower in magnitude at acidic (5.0) and basic pH (8.5) values, respectively. Additionally, intracellularly applied phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] analog [PI(4,5)P2-diC8] increased the average Cl- current density by approximately threefold in a voltage-independent manner. The magnitude of the DSM whole cell Cl- current did not depend on the cell surface area (cell capacitance) regardless of the presence or absence of PI(4,5)P2-diC8, an intriguing finding that underscores the complex nature of Cl- channel expression and function in DSM cells. Removal of both extracellular Ca2+ and Mg2+ did not affect the DSM whole cell Cl- current, whereas Gd3+ (1 mM) potentiated the current. Collectively, our recent and present findings strongly suggest that Cl- channels are critical regulators of DSM excitability and are regulated by extracellular pH, Gd3+, and PI(4,5)P2.

Properties of single-channel and whole cell Cl- currents in guinea pig detrusor smooth muscle cells.

Multiple types of Cl- channels regulate smooth muscle excitability and contractility in vascular, gastrointestinal, and airway smooth muscle cells. However, little is known about Cl- channels in detrusor smooth muscle (DSM) cells. Here, we used inside-out single channel and whole cell patch-clamp recordings for detailed biophysical and pharmacological characterizations of Cl- channels in freshly isolated guinea pig DSM cells. The recorded single Cl- channels displayed unique gating with multiple subconductive states, a fully opened single-channel conductance of 164 pS, and a reversal potential of -41.5 mV, which is close to the ECl of -65 mV, confirming preferential permeability to Cl-. The Cl- channel demonstrated strong voltage dependence of activation (half-maximum of mean open probability, V0.5, ~-20 mV) and robust prolonged openings at depolarizing voltages. The channel displayed similar gating when exposed intracellularly to solutions containing Ca2+-free or 1 mM Ca2+. In whole cell patch-clamp recordings, macroscopic current demonstrated outward rectification, inhibitions by 4,4'-diisothiocyano-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonic acid (DIDS) and niflumic acid, and insensitivity to chlorotoxin. The outward current was reversibly reduced by 94% replacement of extracellular Cl- with I-, Br-, or methanesulfonate (MsO-), resulting in anionic permeability sequence: Cl->Br->I->MsO-. While intracellular Ca2+ levels (0, 300 nM, and 1 mM) did not affect the amplitude of Cl- current and outward rectification, high Ca2+ slowed voltage-step current activation at depolarizing voltages. In conclusion, our data reveal for the first time the presence of a Ca2+-independent DIDS and niflumic acid-sensitive, voltage-dependent Cl- channel in the plasma membrane of DSM cells. This channel may be a key regulator of DSM excitability.

Monovalent cationic channel activity in the inner membrane of nuclei from skeletal muscle fibers.

Nuclear ion channels remain among the least studied and biophysically characterized channels. Although considerable progress has been made in characterizing calcium release channels in the nuclear membrane, very little is known regarding the properties of nuclear monovalent cationic channels. Here, we describe a method to isolate nuclei from adult skeletal muscle fibers that are suitable for electrophysiological experiments. Using this approach, we show for the first time, to our knowledge, that a nuclear monovalent cationic channel (NMCC) is prominently expressed in the inner membrane of nuclei isolated from flexor digitorum brevis skeletal muscle fibers of adult mice. In isotonic 140 mM KCl, the skeletal muscle NMCC exhibits a unitary conductance of ?160 pS and high, voltage-independent open probability. Based on single-channel reversal potential measurements, NMCCs are slightly more permeable to potassium ions over sodium (PK/PNa = 2.68 ± 0.21) and cesium (PK/PCs = 1.39 ± 0.03) ions. In addition, NMCCs do not permeate divalent cations, are inhibited by calcium ions, and demonstrate weak rectification in asymmetric Ca(2+)-containing solutions. Together, these studies characterize a voltage-independent NMCC in skeletal muscle, the properties of which are ideally suited to serve as a countercurrent mechanism during calcium release from the nuclear envelope.

Muscle weakness in myotonic dystrophy associated with misregulated splicing and altered gating of Ca(V)1.1 calcium channel.

Myotonic dystrophy type 1 and type 2 (DM1 and DM2) are genetic diseases in which mutant transcripts containing expanded CUG or CCUG repeats cause cellular dysfunction by altering the processing or metabolism of specific mRNAs and miRNAs. The toxic effects of mutant RNA are mediated partly through effects on proteins that regulate alternative splicing. Here we show that alternative splicing of exon 29 (E29) of Ca(V)1.1, a calcium channel that controls skeletal muscle excitation-contraction coupling, is markedly repressed in DM1 and DM2. The extent of E29 skipping correlated with severity of weakness in tibialis anterior muscle of DM1 patients. Two splicing factors previously implicated in DM1, MBNL1 and CUGBP1, participated in the regulation of E29 splicing. In muscle fibers of wild-type mice, the Ca(V)1.1 channel conductance and voltage sensitivity were increased by splice-shifting oligonucleotides that induce E29 skipping. In contrast to human DM1, expression of CUG-expanded RNA caused only a modest increase in E29 skipping in mice. However, forced skipping of E29 in these mice, to levels approaching those observed in human DM1, aggravated the muscle pathology as evidenced by increased central nucleation. Together, these results indicate that DM-associated splicing defects alter Ca(V)1.1 function, with potential for exacerbation of myopathy.

Temperature and RyR1 regulate the activation rate of store-operated Ca²+ entry current in myotubes.

Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) is an important Ca(2+) entry pathway in skeletal muscle. However, direct electrophysiological recording and full characterization of the underlying SOCE current in skeletal muscle cells (I(SkCRAC)) has not been reported. Here, we characterized the biophysical properties, pharmacological profile, and molecular identity of I(SkCRAC) in skeletal myotubes, as well as the regulation of its rate of activation by temperature and the type I ryanodine receptor (RyR1). I(SkCRAC) exhibited many hallmarks of Ca(2+) release activated Ca(2+) currents (I(CRAC)): store dependence, strong inward rectification, positive reversal potential, limited cesium permeability, and sensitivity to SOCE channel blockers. I(SkCRAC) was reduced by siRNA knockdown of stromal interaction molecule 1 and expression of dominant negative Orai1. Average I(SkCRAC) current density at -80mV was 1.00 ± 0.05 pA/pF. In the presence of 20 mM intracellular EGTA, I(SkCRAC) activation occurred over tens of seconds during repetitive depolarization at 0.5Hz and was inhibited by treatment with 100 µM ryanodine. The rate of SOCE activation was reduced threefold in myotubes from RyR1-null mice and increased 4.6-fold at physiological temperatures (35-37°C). These results show that I(SkCRAC) exhibits similar biophysical, pharmacological, and molecular properties as I(CRAC) in nonexcitable cells and its rate of activation during repetitive depolarization is strongly regulated by temperature and RyR1 activity.

Domain III regulates N-type (CaV2.2) calcium channel closing kinetics.

Ca(V)2.2 (N-type) and Ca(V)1.2 (L-type) calcium channels gate differently in response to membrane depolarization, which is critical to the unique physiological functions mediated by these channels. We wondered if the source for these differences could be identified. As a first step, we examined the effect of domain exchange between N-type and L-type channels on activation-deactivation kinetics, which were significantly different between these channels. Kinetic analysis of chimeric channels revealed N-channel-like deactivation for all chimeric channels containing N-channel domain III, while activation appeared to be a more distributed function across domains. This led us to hypothesize that domain III was an important regulator of N-channel closing. This idea was further examined with R-roscovitine, which is a trisubstituted purine that slows N-channel deactivation by exclusively binding to activated N-channels. L-channels lack this response to roscovitine, which allowed us to use N-L chimeras to test the role of domain III in roscovitine modulation of N-channel deactivation. In support of our hypothesis, all chimeric channels containing the N-channel domain III responded to roscovitine with slowed deactivation, while those chimeric channels with L-channel domain III did not. Thus a combination of kinetic and pharmacological evidence supports the hypothesis that domain III is an important regulator of N-channel closing. Our results support specialization of gating functions among calcium channel domains.

Roscovitine inhibits CaV3.1 (T-type) channels by preferentially affecting closed-state inactivation.

T-type calcium channels (Ca(V)3) play an important role in many physiological and pathological processes, including cancerogenesis. Ca(V)3 channel blockers have been proposed as potential cancer treatments. Roscovitine, a trisubstituted purine, is a cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor that is currently undergoing phase II clinical trials as an anticancer drug and has been shown to affect calcium and potassium channel activity. Here, we investigate the effect of roscovitine on Ca(V)3.1 channels. Ca(V)3.1 channels were transiently expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells, and currents were recorded by using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Roscovitine blocks Ca(V)3.1 channels with higher affinity for depolarized cells (EC50 of 10 µM), which is associated with a negative shift in the voltage dependence of closed-state inactivation. Enhanced inactivation is mediated by roscovitine-induced acceleration of closed-state inactivation and slowed recovery from inactivation. Small effects of roscovitine were also observed on T-channel deactivation and open-state inactivation, but neither could explain the inhibitory effect. Roscovitine inhibits Ca(V)3.1 channels within the therapeutic range (10-50 µM) in part by stabilizing the closed-inactivated state. The ability of roscovitine to block multiple mediators of proliferation, including CDKs and Ca(V)3.1 channels, may facilitate its anticancer properties.

Roscovitine binds to novel L-channel (CaV1.2) sites that separately affect activation and inactivation.

L-type (Ca(V)1.2) calcium channel antagonists play an important role in the treatment of cardiovascular disease. (R)-Roscovitine, a trisubstituted purine, has been shown to inhibit L-currents by slowing activation and enhancing inactivation. This study utilized molecular and pharmacological approaches to determine whether these effects result from (R)-roscovitine binding to a single site. Using the S enantiomer, we find that (S)-roscovitine enhances inactivation without affecting activation, which suggests multiple sites. This was further supported in studies using chimeric channels comprised of N- and L-channel domains. Those chimeras containing L-channel domains I and IV showed (R)-roscovitine-induced slowed activation like that of wild type L-channels, whereas chimeric channels containing L-channel domain I responded to (R)-roscovitine with enhanced inactivation. We conclude that (R)-roscovitine binds to distinct sites on L-type channels to slow activation and enhance inactivation. These sites appear to be unique from other calcium channel antagonist sites that reside within domains III and IV and are thus novel sites that could be exploited for future drug development. Trisubstituted purines could become a new class of drugs for the treatment of diseases related to hyperfunction of L-type channels, such as Torsades de Pointes.

Interference between two modulators of N-type (CaV2.2) calcium channel gating demonstrates that omega-conotoxin GVIA disrupts open state gating.

N-type calcium channels play an important role in synaptic transmission and a drug that blocks these channels has become an important tool in controlling chronic pain. The development of new N-channel-targeted drugs is dependent on a better understanding of the gating of these channels and how that gating can be modulated. We have previously concluded that omega-conotoxin GVIA (GVIA) is a gating modifier that acts by destabilizing the N-channel open state. However, this conclusion was largely based on our modeling results and requires experimental support. Roscovitine, a tri-substituted purine, has been shown to stabilize the N-channel open state to slow gating charge relaxation, which provides a direct test of our hypothesis for GVIA-induced gating modification. We found that roscovitine could modulate gating current in the presence of GVIA, which shows that roscovitine can still affect the gating of the GVIA-bound N-channel. However, the magnitude of the roscovitine-induced slowing of Off-gating current was significantly reduced. In addition to confirming our hypothesis, our evidence supports an additional effect of GVIA to alter gating transitions between N-channel closed states. By strongly limiting access to the N-channel open state, GVIA analogs that selectively induce this modulation could provide the basis for the next generation drugs that treat chronic pain.

HIV-1 Tat and Morphine Differentially Disrupt Pyramidal Cell Structure and Function and Spatial Learning in Hippocampal Area CA1: Continuous versus Interrupted Morphine Exposure.

About half the people infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) have neurocognitive deficits that often include memory impairment and hippocampal deficits, which can be exacerbated by opioid abuse. To explore the effects of opioids and HIV on hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neuron structure and function, we induced HIV-1 transactivator of transcription (Tat) expression in transgenic mice for 14 d and co-administered time-release morphine or vehicle subcutaneous implants during the final 5 d (days 9-14) to establish steady-state morphine levels. Morphine was withheld from some ex vivo slices during recordings to begin to assess the initial pharmacokinetic consequences of opioid withdrawal. Tat expression reduced hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neuronal excitability at lower stimulating currents. Pyramidal cell firing rates were unaffected by continuous morphine exposure. Behaviorally, exposure to Tat or high dosages of morphine impaired spatial memory Exposure to Tat and steady-state levels of morphine appeared to have largely independent effects on pyramidal neuron structure and function, a response that is distinct from other vulnerable brain regions such as the striatum. By contrast, acutely withholding morphine (from morphine-tolerant ex vivo slices) revealed unique and selective neuroadaptive shifts in CA1 pyramidal neuronal excitability and dendritic plasticity, including some interactions with Tat. Collectively, the results show that opioid-HIV interactions in hippocampal area CA1 are more nuanced than previously assumed, and appear to vary depending on the outcome assessed and on the pharmacokinetics of morphine exposure.

Phospholemman modulates the gating of cardiac L-type calcium channels.

Ca(2+) entry through L-type calcium channels (Ca(V)1.2) is critical in shaping the cardiac action potential and initiating cardiac contraction. Modulation of Ca(V)1.2 channel gating directly affects myocyte excitability and cardiac function. We have found that phospholemman (PLM), a member of the FXYD family and regulator of cardiac ion transport, coimmunoprecipitates with Ca(V)1.2 channels from guinea pig myocytes, which suggests PLM is an endogenous modulator. Cotransfection of PLM in HEK293 cells slowed Ca(V)1.2 current activation at voltages near the threshold for activation, slowed deactivation after long and strong depolarizing steps, enhanced the rate and magnitude of voltage-dependent inactivation (VDI), and slowed recovery from inactivation. However, Ca(2+)-dependent inactivation was not affected. Consistent with slower channel closing, PLM significantly increased Ca(2+) influx via Ca(V)1.2 channels during the repolarization phase of a human cardiac action potential waveform. Our results support PLM as an endogenous regulator of Ca(V)1.2 channel gating. The enhanced VDI induced by PLM may help protect the heart under conditions such as ischemia or tachycardia where the channels are depolarized for prolonged periods of time and could induce Ca(2+) overload. The time and voltage-dependent slowed deactivation could represent a gating shift that helps maintain Ca(2+) influx during the cardiac action potential waveform plateau phase.

Site-specific effects of diselenide bridges on the oxidative folding of a cystine knot peptide, omega-selenoconotoxin GVIA.

Structural and functional studies of small, disulfide-rich peptides depend on their efficient chemical synthesis and folding. A large group of peptides derived from animals and plants contains the Cys pattern C-C-CC-C-C that forms the inhibitory cystine knot (ICK) or knottin motif. Here we report the effect of site-specific incorporation of pairs of selenocysteine residues on oxidative folding and the functional activity of omega-conotoxin GVIA, a well-characterized ICK-motif peptidic antagonist of voltage-gated calcium channels. Three selenoconotoxin GVIA analogues were chemically synthesized; all three folded significantly faster in the glutathione-based buffer compared to wild-type GVIA. One analogue, GVIA[C8U,C19U], exhibited significantly higher folding yields. A recently described NMR-based method was used for mapping the disulfide connectivities in the three selenoconotoxin analogues. The diselenide-directed oxidative folding of selenoconotoxins was predominantly driven by amino acid residue loop sizes formed by the resulting diselenide and disulfide cross-links. Both in vivo and in vitro activities of the analogues were assessed; the block of N-type calcium channels was comparable among the analogues and wild-type GVIA, suggesting that the diselenide replacement did not affect the bioactive conformation. Thus, diselenide substitution may facilitate oxidative folding of pharmacologically diverse ICK peptides. The diselenide replacement has been successfully applied to a growing number of bioactive peptides, including alpha-, mu-, and omega-conotoxins, suggesting that the integrated oxidative folding of selenopeptides described here may prove to be a general approach for efficient synthesis of diverse classes of disulfide-rich peptides.

Open-state occupancy prevents gating charge relaxation of N-type (CaV2.2) calcium channels.

N-type and L-type channels have significant gating differences, and we wondered whether some of these differences are linked to the relationship between charge movement and channel opening. The time constants for N-channel closing (tau(Deact)) and Off-gating charge movement (tauQ(Off)) were compared over a range of voltages. tauQ(Off) was significantly larger than tau(Deact) at voltages < -10 mV, and the voltage dependence of the tauQ(Off) was less steep than that for tau(Deact), which suggests that gating charge relaxation does not limit channel closing. Roscovitine, a drug that slows N-channel closing by holding the channel in a high open-probability state, was found to slow both tauQ(Off) and tau(Deact), and thus the time courses of channel closing and gating charge relaxation were similar. Our gating current results were reproduced with the addition of a voltage-independent, closed-closed transition to our previously published two-open-state N-channel model. This work suggests that, like L-type channels, there is a voltage-independent transition along the N-channel activation/deactivation pathway, but this transition occurs between closed states instead of the closed-open states of the L-channel. Also unlike L-type channels, the gating charge appears to be locked into the activated position by the N-channel open state.

The Timothy syndrome mutation of cardiac CaV1.2 (L-type) channels: multiple altered gating mechanisms and pharmacological restoration of inactivation.

Timothy syndrome (TS) is a multiorgan dysfunction caused by a Gly to Arg substitution at position 406 (G406R) of the human CaV1.2 (L-type) channel. The TS phenotype includes severe arrhythmias that are thought to be triggered by impaired open-state voltage-dependent inactivation (OSvdI). The effect of the TS mutation on other L-channel gating mechanisms has yet to be investigated. We compared kinetic properties of exogenously expressed (HEK293 cells) rabbit cardiac L-channels with (G436R; corresponding to position 406 in human clone) and without (wild-type) the TS mutation. Our results surprisingly show that the TS mutation did not affect close-state voltage-dependent inactivation, which suggests different gating mechanisms underlie these two types of voltage-dependent inactivation. The TS mutation also significantly slowed activation at voltages less than 10 mV, and significantly slowed deactivation across all test voltages. Deactivation was slowed in the double mutant G436R/S439A, which suggests that phosphorylation of S439 was not involved. The L-channel agonist Bay K8644 increased the magnitude of both step and tail currents, but surprisingly failed to slow deactivation of TS channels. Our mathematical model showed that slowed deactivation plus impaired OSvdI combine to synergistically increase cardiac action potential duration that is a likely cause of arrhythmias in TS patients. Roscovitine, a tri-substituted purine that enhances L-channel OSvdI, restored TS-impaired OSvdI. Thus, inactivation-enhancing drugs are likely to improve cardiac arrhythmias and other pathologies afflicting TS patients.

Ca(2+) permeation and/or binding to CaV1.1 fine-tunes skeletal muscle Ca(2+) signaling to sustain muscle function.

BACKGROUND: Ca(2+) influx through CaV1.1 is not required for skeletal muscle excitation-contraction coupling, but whether Ca(2+) permeation through CaV1.1 during sustained muscle activity plays a functional role in mammalian skeletal muscle has not been assessed. METHODS: We generated a mouse with a Ca(2+) binding and/or permeation defect in the voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channel, CaV1.1, and used Ca(2+) imaging, western blotting, immunohistochemistry, proximity ligation assays, SUnSET analysis of protein synthesis, and Ca(2+) imaging techniques to define pathways modulated by Ca(2+) binding and/or permeation of CaV1.1. We also assessed fiber type distributions, cross-sectional area, and force frequency and fatigue in isolated muscles. RESULTS: Using mice with a pore mutation in CaV1.1 required for Ca(2+) binding and/or permeation (E1014K, EK), we demonstrate that CaV1.1 opening is coupled to CaMKII activation and refilling of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) stores during sustained activity. Decreases in these Ca(2+)-dependent enzyme activities alter downstream signaling pathways (Ras/Erk/mTORC1) that lead to decreased muscle protein synthesis. The physiological consequences of the permeation and/or Ca(2+) binding defect in CaV1.1 are increased fatigue, decreased fiber size, and increased Type IIb fibers. CONCLUSIONS: While not essential for excitation-contraction coupling, Ca(2+) binding and/or permeation via the CaV1.1 pore plays an important modulatory role in muscle performance.