Effect of amoxicillin exposure on brain, gill, liver, and kidney of common carp (Cyprinus carpio): The role of amoxicilloic acid.

Amoxicillin (AMX) is one of the most commonly prescribed antibiotics around the world due to its broad-spectrum activity against different bacterial strains as well as its use as a growth promoter in animal husbandry. Although residues of this antibacterial agent have been found in water bodies in diverse countries, there is not enough information on its potential toxicity to aquatic organisms such as the common carp Cyprinus carpio. This study aimed to evaluate AMX-induced oxidative stress in brain, gill, liver and kidney of C. carpio. Carp were exposed to three different concentrations of AMX (10 ng/L, 10 µg/L, 10 mg/L) for 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h, and the following biomarkers were evaluated: lipid peroxidation (LPX), hydroperoxide content (HPC), protein carbonyl content (PCC) and activity of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Amoxicillin and its main degradation product amoxicilloic acid (AMA) were determined by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrochemical detection and UV detection (HPLC-EC-UV). Significant increases in LPX, HPC, and PCC (P < 0.05) were found in all study organs, particularly kidney, as well as significant changes in antioxidant enzymes activity. Amoxicilloic acid in water is concluded to induce oxidative stress in C. carpio, this damage being highest in kidney. The biomarkers used are effective for the assessment of the environmental impact of this agent on aquatic species. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 32: 1102-1120, 2017.

Mechanisms of action of paraoxon, an organophosphorus pesticide, on in vivo dopamine release in conscious and freely moving rats.

Paraoxon is the active metabolite of parathion, an organophosphorus pesticide which can cause neurotoxic effects in animals and humans. In the present work, we investigated the effects of 5 mM paraoxon on striatal dopamine, DOPAC and HVA levels in conscious and freely moving rats, after treatment with TTX, reserpine, nomifensine, KCl, Ca++-free/EDTA medium, AP-5 or L-NAME. The intrastriatal administration of paraoxon for 60 min, through the microdialysis probe, significantly produced an increase of the dopamine to 1066 ±â€¯120%, relative to basal levels. Administration of paraoxon to 20 µM TTX, 10 mg/kg reserpine or Ca++-free/EDTA medium-pretreated animals decreased the dopamine levels to 73%, 81%, and 70%, respectively, when compared with the effect of 5 mM paraoxon. Infusion of 50 µM nomifensine induced a maximal increase in extracellular dopamine levels to 1435 ±â€¯387%, and when nomifensine was coadministered with paraoxon, striatal dopamine levels increased to 2429 ±â€¯417%, an increase that was ∼230% higher that observed with the administration of the pesticide alone. Coinfusion of KCl and paraoxon produced an increase in extracellular dopamine to 1957 ±â€¯445%, that was significantly higher than that observed with POX or KCl (1104 ±â€¯220%) administered individually. Pretreatment with 650 µM AP-5 or 100 L-NAME reduced the effect of paraoxon on extracellular dopamine levels by 49.1% and 53.7%, respectively. Our results suggest that paraoxon induces dopamine release by a vesicular-, Ca++-, and deporalization-dependent mechanism, being independent of dopamine transporter. In addition, the paraoxon-induced dopamine release is mediated by glutamatergic and nitrergic neurotransmitter systems.

Measurement of the Oxidative DNA Lesion 8-Oxoguanine (8-oxoG) by ELISA or by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with Electrochemical Detection.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) can oxidize cellular macromolecules like DNA, causing DNA damage. The most common form of DNA damage is the 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG) lesion, typically repaired by the base excision repair (BER) pathway, which is initiated by the enzyme oxoguanine glycosylase 1 (OGG1). ROS are produced endogenously and can be enhanced by environmental factors, such as xenobiotics, radiation, and microbial pathogens. As a commonly used biomarker of oxidative damage, 8-oxoG can be measured in two different ways described herein. Commercially available ELISA kits allow for easy detection of the 8-oxoG lesion, while more difficult HPLC assays with UV and electrochemical detection allow for a more definitive identification and quantification of 8-oxoG.

Bioconversion of Tyrosine and Tryptophan Derived Biogenic Amines by Neuropathogenic Bacteria.

The biochemical potential of pathogenic bacteria may cause alteration in the neurophysiological environment; consequently, neuroendocrine and immune responses of the host are modulated by endogenously produced metabolic products of neuropathogenic bacteria. The present study was designed to detect the derived biogenic amines in spent culture media of Bacillus cereus (Bc), Clostridium tetani (Ct), Listeria monocytogenes (Lm), and Neisseria meningitidis (Nm). Overnight grown culture in different culture media i.e., Nutrient broth (NB), Luria basal broth (LB), Brain Heart Infusion broth (BHI), and human serum supplemented RPMI 1640 medium (RPMI) were used to prepare filter-sterilized, cell-free cultural broths (SCFBs) and subjected to high performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (HPLC-EC) along with the control SCFBs. Comparative analysis of biogenic amines in neuropathogenic bacterial SCFBs with their respective control (SCFB) revealed the complete degradation of dopamine (DA) into its metabolic products by Bc, Ct, and Nm, whereas Lm showed negligible degradation of DA. A relatively high concentration of 5-hydroxyindol acetic acid (5HIAA) by Bc in NB and LB indicated the tryptophan metabolism by the serotonin (5HT) pathway. Our study suggests that microbial endocrinology could help unravel new perspectives to the progression of infectious diseases.

Cerebrospinal Fluid Concentrations of Biogenic Amines: Potential Biomarkers for Diagnosis of Bacterial and Viral Meningitis.

Catecholamine and serotonin are biogenic amines (BAs) that serve as neurotransmitters and play an important role in the regulation of cardinal functions that are mainly altered during central nervous system (CNS) infections. A total 92 samples of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were classified into 4 groups based on their etiology. In these samples, BAs/neurotransmitters i.e., dopamine (DA), 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), homovanillic acid (HVA), and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5HIAA) were detected and quantified by high performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (HPLC-EC) to determine the neurophysiology of the CNS infections by bacteria (Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) and Neisseria meningitidis (Nm)) and herpes simplex virus (HSV). CSF concentration of DA, DOPAC, HVA, and 5HIAA were found significantly elevated in all test cohorts. Present study highlights that the analysis of BAs is pivotal for the early diagnosis of bacterial and viral meningitis. In addition, coinfections of varied etiology can also be diagnosed by their quantification. Thus, BAs can serve as potential biomarkers of these CNS infections.

Implications of Neuroinvasive Bacterial Peptides on Rodents Behaviour and Neurotransmission.

Neuroinvasive microbes are capable of applying their influences on the autonomic nervous system (ANS) of the host followed by the involvement of central nervous system (CNS) by releasing extracellular metabolites that may cause alterations in the biochemical and neurophysiological environment. Consequently synaptic, neuroendocrine, peripheral immune, neuro-immune, and behavioural responses of the host facilitate the progression of infection. The present study was designed to extrapolate the effects of crude and purified extracellular peptides of neuropathogenic bacteria on behavioural responses and neurotransmission of Sprague Dawley (SD) models. Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) and Neisseria meningitides (Nm) were isolated from the 92 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples collected from mentally compromised patients. Bacillus cereus (Bc) and Clostridium tetani (Ct) were also included in the study. All bacterial strains were identified by the standard biochemical procedures. Filter sterilized cell free cultural broths (SCFBs) were prepared of different culture media. Behavioural study and neurotransmitter analysis were performed by giving an intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of each bacterial SCFB to four groups (Test; n = 7) of SD rats, whereas two groups each (Control; n = 7) received a nutrient broth (NB) control and sterile physiological saline control, respectively. Extracellular bioactive peptides of these bacteria were screened and purified. All experiments were repeated using purified bacterial peptides on SD rat cohorts. Our study indicated promising behavioural changes, including fever, swelling, and hind paw paralysis, in SD rat cohorts. Purified bacterial peptides of all bacteria used in the present study elicited marked changes in behaviour through the involvement of the autonomic nervous system. Furthermore, these peptides of meningitis bacteria were found to potently affect the dopaminergic neurotransmission in CNS.

Flavonoids electrochemical detection in fruit extracts and total antioxidant capacity evaluation.

Phenolic compounds detection in fruit extracts from: açai, bacuri, buriti, blackberry, black mulberry, blueberry, juçara, physalis, raspberry, and tamarillo, have been performed by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (RP-HPLC-EC), using two detectors in series: a wall-jet detector flow cell with a glassy carbon electrode, and a thin-layer flow cell detector with a boron doped diamond electrode. This methodology, in gradient elution mode, was successfully used to detect seventeen phenolic compounds in the fruit extracts. The total antioxidant capacity of the fruit extracts by the electrochemical quantitative index (EI) and the method of capture of diphenilpicrilhydrazil (DPPH(●)) free radical "efficient concentration" (EC50), was evaluated. A very good correlation between EI and EC50 assays has been obtained, the fruit with the highest total antioxidant capacity being blackberry, while physalis exhibited the lowest antioxidant power.

Opposing effects of ketamine and acetyl L-carnitine on the serotonergic system of zebrafish.

Ketamine, a pediatric anesthetic, is a noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antagonist. Studies show that ketamine is neurotoxic in developing mammals and zebrafish. In both mammals and zebrafish, acetyl L-carnitine (ALCAR) has been shown to be protective against ketamine toxicity. Ketamine is known to modulate the serotonergic system in mammals. Here, we measured the levels of serotonin (5-HT) and its metabolite, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the embryos exposed to ketamine in the presence and absence of ALCAR. Ketamine, at lower doses, did not produce significant changes in the 5-HT or 5-HIAA levels in 3 dpf (day post-fertilization) embryos. However, 2 mM ketamine (internal embryo exposure levels comparable to human anesthetic plasma concentration) significantly reduced 5-HT level, and 5-HIAA was not detectable indicating that 5-HT metabolism was abolished. In the presence or absence of 2 mM ketamine, ALCAR by itself did not significantly alter 5-HT or 5-HIAA levels compared to the control. Ratios of metabolite/5-HT indicated that 2 mM ketamine inhibited 5-HT metabolism to 5-HIAA whereas lower doses (0.1-0.3 mM) of ketamine did not have any effect. ALCAR reversed the effects of 2 mM ketamine not only by restoring 5-HT and 5-HIAA levels but also 5-HT turnover rate to control levels. Whole mount immunohistochemical studies showed that 2 mM ketamine reduced the serotonergic area in the brain whereas ALCAR expanded it with increased axonal sprouting and branching. These results indicate that ketamine and ALCAR have opposing effects on the zebrafish serotonergic system.

Amoxicillin-associated interference in an HPLC-EC assay for urinary fractionated metanephrines: potential pitfall in pheochromocytoma biochemical diagnosis.

OBJECTIVE: Measurement of urinary fractionated metanephrines represents a first-line test for the biochemical diagnosis of pheochromocytoma. The high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrochemical detection (HPLC-EC) assays used in the routine clinical laboratory can be subjected to analytical interferences by the presence of drugs or their metabolites. In this paper we describe the interference on urinary normetanephrine (uNMN) caused by amoxicillin. DESIGN AND METHODS: Two pediatric patients suspected of pheochromocytoma had very high uNMN levels (2543 and 4227µg/g Cr respectively; upper reference value: 339µg/g Cr). Amoxicillin interference was assessed by comparison for co-elution with uNMN and by LC-MS/MS analysis. RESULTS: After amoxicillin interference was suspected and the therapy was stopped uNMN levels returned to normal (149 and 214µg/g Cr respectively). Chromatograms obtained by HPLC-EC clearly showed that amoxicillin co-elutes with uNMN. Patients' uNMN levels measured by LC-MS/MS were in the normal range. CONCLUSION: Amoxicillin is responsible for analytical interference on HPLC-EC assay for uNMN. This finding can be of help in distinguishing true-positive from false-positive results in the course of a biochemical diagnosis for pheochromocytoma.

Analysis and measurement of the sympathetic and sensory innervation of white and brown adipose tissue.

Here, we provide a detailed account of how to denervate white and brown adipose tissue (WAT and BAT) and how to measure sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity to these and other tissues neurochemically. The brain controls many of the functions of WAT and BAT via the SNS innervation of the tissues, especially lipolysis and thermogenesis, respectively. There is no clearly demonstrated parasympathetic innervation of WAT or the major interscapular BAT (IBAT) depot. WAT and BAT communicate with the brain neurally via sensory nerves. We detail the surgical denervation (eliminating both innervations) of several WAT pads and IBAT. We also detail more selective chemical denervation of the SNS innervation via intra-WAT/IBAT 6-hydroxy-dopamine (a catecholaminergic neurotoxin) injections and selective chemical sensory denervation via intra-WAT/IBAT capsaicin (a sensory nerve neurotoxin) injections. Verifications of the denervations are provided (HPLC-EC detection for SNS, ELIA for calcitonin gene-related peptide (proven sensory nerve marker)). Finally, assessment of the SNS drive to WAT/BAT or other tissues is described using the alpha-methyl-para-tyrosine method combined with HPLC-EC, a direct neurochemical measure of SNS activity. These methods have proven useful for us and for other investigators interested in innervation of adipose tissues. The chemical denervation approach has been extended to nonadipose tissues as well.

Role of glutamate receptors and nitric oxide on the effects of glufosinate ammonium, an organophosphate pesticide, on in vivo dopamine release in rat striatum.

The purpose of the present work was to assess the possible role of glutamatergic receptors and nitric oxide (NO) production on effects of glufosinate ammonium (GLA), an organophosphate pesticide structurally related to glutamate, on in vivo striatal dopamine release in awake and freely moving rats. For this, we used antagonists of NMDA (MK-801 and AP5) or AMPA/kainate (CNQX) receptors, or nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors (l-NAME and 7-NI), to study the effects of GLA on release of dopamine from rat striatum. So, intrastriatal infusion of 10mM GLA significantly increased dopamine levels (1035±140%, compared with basal levels) and administration of GLA to MK-801 (250µM) or AP5 (650µM) pretreated animals, produced increases in dopamine overflow that were ∼40% and ∼90% smaller than those observed in animals not pretreated with MK-801 or AP5. Administration of GLA to CNQX (500µM) pretreated animals produced an effect that was not significantly different from the one produced in animals not pretreated with CNQX. On the other hand, administration of GLA to l-NAME (100µM) or 7-NI (100µM) pretreated animals, produced increases in dopamine overflow that were ∼80% and ∼75% smaller than those observed in animals not pretreated with these inhibitors. In summary, GLA appears to act, at least in part, through an overstimulation of NMDA (and not AMPA/kainate) receptors with possible NO production to induce in vivo dopamine release. Administration of NMDA receptor antagonists and NOS inhibitors partially blocks the release of dopamine from rat striatum.

Olfactory bulb monoamine concentrations vary with time of day.

The olfactory bulb (OB) has been recently identified as a circadian oscillator capable of operating independently of the master circadian pacemaker, the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus. OB oscillations manifest as rhythms in clock genes, electrical activity, and odor sensitivity. Dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin have been shown to modulate olfactory information processing by the OB and may be part of the mechanism that underlies diurnal changes in olfactory sensitivity. Rhythmic release of these neurotransmitters could generate OB rhythms in electrical activity and olfactory sensitivity. We hypothesized that these monoamines were rhythmically released in the OB. To test our hypotheses, we examined monoamine levels in the OB, over the course of a day, by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrochemical detection. We observed that dopamine and its metabolite, 3-4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, rhythmically fluctuate over the day. In contrast, norepinephrine is arrhythmic. Serotonin and its metabolite hydroxyindoleacetic acid appear to rhythmically fluctuate. Each of these monoamines has been shown to alter OB circuit behavior and influence odor processing. Rhythmic release of serotonin may be a mechanism by which the suprachiasmatic nuclei communicate, indirectly, with the OB.

Altered somatosensory barrel cortex refinement in the developing brain of Mecp2-null mice.

Rett syndrome (RTT) is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by mutations in the methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) gene. In previous studies, monoaminergic dysfunctions have been detected in patients with RTT and in a murine model of RTT, the Mecp2-null mouse. Therefore, the pathogenesis of RTT is thought to involve impairments in the monoaminergic systems. However, there have been limited data showing that the impairment of monoamines leads to early symptoms during development. We used histochemistry to study the somatosensory barrel cortex in the B6.129P2(C)-Mecp2(tm1.1Bird) mouse model of RTT. The barrel cortex is widely used to investigate neuronal development and its regulation by various neurotransmitters including 5-HT. 5-HT levels were measured by high performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (HPLC/EC), and serotonin transporter (SERT) and 5-HT1B receptor mRNAs were measured in the somatosensory cortex, thalamus and striatum on postnatal days (P) 10, P20 and P40. Mecp2-null mice (Mecp2-/y) had significantly smaller barrel fields than age-matched wild-type controls (Mecp2+/y) on P10 and P40, but the topographic map was accurately formed. Levels of 5-HT, and SERT and 5-HT1B receptor mRNA expression in the somatosensory cortex did not differ significantly between the Mecp2-null and wild-type mice on P10. However, thalamic 5-HT was reduced in Mecp2-null mice. Our data indicate that a lack of MeCP2 may disturb the refinement of the barrel cortex in the early postnatal period. Our findings suggest that a decrease in thalamic 5-HT might be involved in this phenomenon.

GABAA-receptor activation in the subthalamic nucleus compensates behavioral asymmetries in the hemiparkinsonian rat.

The subthalamic nucleus (STN) has a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD). Modulation of STN activity (by lesions, pharmacological or electrical stimulation) has been shown to improve motor parameters in PD patients and in animal models of PD. In an attempt to characterize the neurochemical bases for such antiparkinsonian action, we address specific neurotransmitter systems via local pharmacological manipulation of the STN in hemiparkinsonian rats. Here, we have focused on the GABAergic and glutamatergic receptors in the STN. In animals with unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the nigro-striatal tract, we administered either the selective GABAA-agonist muscimol (0.5 µg and 1.0 µg), the non-competitive N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-antagonist MK-801 (dizocilpine; 2.5 µg), or vehicle (0.25 µl) into the STN. The effects of GABAergic and glutamatergic modulation of the STN on motor parameters were assessed by gauging rotational behavior and locomotion. Application of muscimol ipsilateral to the side of dopamine-depletion influenced turning behavior in a dose-dependent fashion, with the low dose re-adjusting turning behavior to a non-biased distribution, and the high dose evoking contraversive turning. The administration of MK-801 did not have such effects. These findings give evidence for the involvement of GABAergic activation in the STN in the compensation of motor asymmetries in the hemiparkinsonian rat, whereas N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-antagonism was ineffective in this model of PD.

Determination of Oxidative DNA Molecule Damage Caused by Environmental Tobacco Smoke Side Stream / 环境与健康杂志

Objective The genotoxicty and its molecular mechanism of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) were discussed through the oxidative DNA damage induced by environmental tobacco side_stream smoke(ETSS). Methods DNA adduct 8_hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8_OHdG) was used as a biomarker of oxidative DNA damage. The level of 8_OHdG in DNA exposed to ETSS was detected by HPLC_EC.On the molecular biological level,the biological oxidative ability of ETSS on DNA molecule was studied.Organic and inorganic components in ETSS were analyzed by GC_MS and AAS respectively. Results Particles and VOCs in ETSS could directly induce oxidative DNA damage and form 8_OHdG.It was found that there were 123 and 84 kinds of organic compounds in particles and volatile organic compounds of tobacco smoke side stream,and 7 kinds of inorganic compounds in ETSS.Some components especially quinones and polyphenols in ETS,could produce free radicals in vitro by the auto_oxidation without any biological activity systems,and with the catalytic reaction of metals,the DNA aduct 8_OHdG was produced. Conclusion It was proved that ETS had biological oxidative ability on DNA and expressed direct genotoxicity.8_OHdG was a fine biomarker of effect of oxidative DNA damage.

HPLC-EC DETERMINATION ON THE CONTENTS OF DOPAMINE AND ITS METABOLITES IN BILATERAL STRIATA OF SUBSTANTIA NIGRA LESIONED RATS / 解剖学报

The contents of dopamine (DA) and its metabolites, homovanillic acid (HVA) and 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid(DOPAC), in both striata were determined with HPLC-EC technique in each of 28 albino rats, which were divided into 3 groups (bilateral lesioned, unilateral lesioned and healthy control groups). Among the unilateral lesioned rats, three indices such as DA, HVA/DA and DOPAC/DA in the lesioned striata were 22.27％, 420.00％ and 199.75％ of those of the intact striata, respectively. This suggests that there may be an enhanced compensatory DA release in the striatum ipsilateral to the lesion of the rat. Having compared the lesioned striata of unilateral lesioned rats with those of bilateral lesioned animals, and the intact striata of unilateral lesioned rats with those of the control ones, we did not find any significant differences in DA, HVA/DA or DOPAC/DA. The result implies that the compensatory DA release in the lesioned striatum probably accounts for the mechanism of the ipsilateral nigrostriatal system, not for the crossed nigrostriatal fibers.