Optimizing the Vanillin-Acid Sulfuric Method to Total Saponin Content in Leaves of Yerba Mate Clones.

Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) is a forest species consumed in the form of non-alcoholic beverages in South America, with applications in foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. The species leaves are globally recognized for their important bioactive compounds, including, saponins. We adjusted the vanillin-acid sulfuric method for determining spectrophotometrically the total saponin in yerba mate leaves. Seeking to maximize the extraction of saponins from leaves, a Doehlert design combined with Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was used, considering ethanol:water ratios and ultrasound times. In addition, the same methodology was used for the analysis of times and temperatures in the vanillin-sulfuric acid reaction heating. The contents of total saponin in mature leaves were compared in four yerba mate clones. The extraction was maximized using 40 % ethanol:60 % water and 60 minutes of ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) without heating. For the reaction conditions, 70 °C for 10 minutes heating is recommended, and UV/Vis reading from 460 to 680 nm. Using the optimized methodology, total saponin contents ranged from 28.43 to 53.09 mg g-1 in the four yerba mate clones. The significant difference in saponin contents between clones indicate great genetic diversity and potential for clones' selection and extraction of these compounds from yerba mate leaves.

Antioxidant Scavenging of the Superoxide Radical by Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) and Black Tea (Camellia sinensis) Plus Caffeic and Chlorogenic Acids, as Shown via DFT and Hydrodynamic Voltammetry.

We describe the antioxidant capability of scavenging the superoxide radical of several tea and yerba mate samples using rotating ring-disk electrochemistry (RRDE). We directly measured superoxide concentrations and detected their decrease upon the addition of an antioxidant to the electrochemical cell. We studied two varieties of yerba mate, two varieties of black tea from Bangladesh, a sample of Pu-erh tea from China, and two components, caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid. All of these plant infusions and components showed strong antioxidant activities, virtually annihilating the available superoxide concentration. Using density functional theory (DFT) calculations, we describe a mechanism of superoxide scavenging via caffeic and chlorogenic acids. Superoxide can initially interact at two sites in these acids: the H4 catechol hydrogen (a) or the acidic proton of the acid (b). For (a), caffeic acid needs an additional π-π superoxide radical, which transfers electron density to the ring and forms a HO2- anion. A second caffeic acid proton and HO2- anion forms H2O2. Chlorogenic acid acts differently, as the initial approach of superoxide to the catechol moiety (a) is enough to form the HO2- anion. After an additional acidic proton of chlorogenic acid is given to HO2-, three well-separated compounds arise: (1) a carboxylate moiety, (2) H2O2, and a (3) chlorogenic acid semiquinone. The latter can capture a second superoxide in a π-π manner, which remains trapped due to the aromatic ring, as for caffeic acid. With enough of both acids and superoxide radicals, the final products are equivalent: H2O2 plus a complex of the type [X-acid-η-O2], X = caffeic, chlorogenic. Chlorogenic acid (b) is described by the following reaction: 2 O2•- + 2 chlorogenic acid → 2 chlorogenic carboxylate + O2 + H2O2, and so, it acts as a non-enzymatic superoxide dismutase (SOD) mimic, as shown via the product formation of O2 plus H2O2, which is limited due to chlorogenic acid consumption. Caffeic acid (b) differs from chlorogenic acid, as there is no acidic proton capture via superoxide. In this case, approaching a second superoxide to the H4 polyphenol moiety forms a HO2- anion and, later, an H2O2 molecule upon the transfer of a second caffeic acid proton.

Changes in the Physicochemical and Bioactive Properties of Yerba Mate Depending on the Brewing Conditions.

Yerba Mate drink made from dried and crushed leaves and twigs of Paraguayan holly (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.), which is a valuable source of bioactive substances, in particular antioxidants. The available literature lacks data on changes in the content and profile of bioactive compounds such as tannins, caffeine, the phenolic acid profile of flavonoids and carotenoids, as well as total polyphenol content and antioxidant activity in Yerba Mate infusions depending on different brewing conditions, and how different brewing conditions affect the physicochemical properties of these infusions. Therefore, this study evaluated the physicochemical properties of dried and Yerba Mate infusions prepared via single and double brewing processes at 70 °C and 100 °C. The organoleptic evaluation, as well as the instrumental color measurement, showed significant changes in the total color difference (ΔE) and the L*a*b* chromatic coordinates of dried Yerba Mate samples and their infusions. Moreover, the research showed higher contents of tannins (mean 1.36 ± 0.14 g/100 g d.m.), caffeine (mean 17.79 ± 3.49 mg/g d.m.), carotenoids (mean 12.90 ± 0.44 µg/g d.m.), phenolic acids (mean 69.97 ± 7.10 mg/g d.m.), flavonoids (mean 5.47 ± 1.78 mg/g d.m.), total polyphenols (mean 55.26 ± 8.51 mg GAE/g d.m.), and antioxidant activity (mean 2031.98 ± 146.47 µM TEAC/g d.m.) in single-brewed Yerba Mate infusions compared to double-brewed (0.77 ± 0.12 g/100 g d.m., 14.28 ± 5.80 mg/g d.m., 12.67 ± 0.62 µg/g d.m., 57.75 ± 8.73 mg/g d.m., 3.64 ± 0.76 mg/g d.m., 33.44 ± 6.48 mg GAE/g d.m. and 1683.09 ± 155.34 µM TEAC/g d.m., respectively). In addition, infusions prepared at a lower temperature (70 °C) were characterized by a higher content of total polyphenols and higher antioxidant activity, in contrast to the tannin and carotenoid contents, the levels of which were higher at 100 °C than at 70 °C. Considering the high amount of bioactive ingredients, in particular antioxidants, and a wide range of health benefits, it is worth including Yerba Mate in the daily diet.

Time and temperature influence on physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory profiles of yerba mate kombucha.

The present work aimed to evaluate the features of yerba mate kombucha during 7 days of fermentation at either 25 ºC or 30 ºC, monitoring physicochemical changes, sensory profile, and sensorial acceptance. The symbiotic microbial culture of active bacteria and yeasts (SCOBY) at the beginning and the end of the bioprocess was also identified. The yerba mate kombuchas fermented at 25 ºC for 5 days or 30 ºC for 4 days were suitable for consumption according to Brazilian standards. Acetic acid, ethanol, and chlorophyll contents were dependent on fermentation time and temperature, unlike the total phenolic content. The main yeast and bacterium in SCOBY were Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Komagataeibacter rhaeticus, respectively, which remained dominant when fermentation was conducted for up to 7 days at both temperatures. Fermentation of yerba mate infusion led to products characterized by sourness, vinegar bitter, and fermented flavors and aromas, making the acceptance of non-fermented Yerba mate preferable to fermented infusions. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-024-05951-z.

Determination of MIC, MPC, and MSW of Ilex paraguariensis against non-typhoidal Salmonella with identification of the mechanisms of resistance and pathogenicity factors.

This study investigated the antibacterial activity of the aqueous extract of Ilex paraguariensis against 32 different strains of nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) through the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), mutant prevention concentration (MPC), and mutant selection window (MSW) and the detection of virulence genes by multiplex PCR assays. The MIC values of Ilex paraguariensis against Salmonella spp. strains varied between 0.78 mg/ml and 6.25 mg/ml with a MIC90 of 3.12 mg/ml. The highest MPC in this study was 48 mg/ml yielding a mutant selection window of 41.75 mg/ml. The MSW values of the remaining strains varied between 1.56 and 8.87 mg/ml. Genes of pathogenicity detected in Salmonella spp. isolates were most commonly the stn, sdiA, invA, sopB, invH, and sopE genes. The antibacterial activity of yerba mate extract was not affected by the antimicrobial resistance patterns or pathogenicity genes expressed. More work is needed to identify the active antibacterial compound(s) responsible for the antibacterial activity.

Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.) for new therapeutic and nutraceutical interventions: A review of patents issued in the last 20 years (2000-2020).

It has been estimated that more than 70% of all drugs approved worldwide between 1981 and 2006 for human health are derived from or structurally similar to natural compounds. The identification of biological matrices containing bioactive compounds with therapeutic and nutraceutical potential is necessary to supply the global market demands. Researches have indicated that the consumption of dry and aqueous extracts of Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil. is safe, providing that plant biomass does not be exposed to smoke over the drying process, avoiding contamination (e.g., ) with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, and can might help avoiding many diseases, with important potential applications in the pharma and nutraceutical industries. A survey was carried out covering the main therapeutic and nutraceutical studies performed on I. paraguariensis extracts and their relationship with the global patents granted in the last 20 years for the products using this specie in their composition. In the PubMed database, by searching for the term "Ilex paraguariensis," an output with 497 scientific publications was found. Each paper was analyzed individually and 26 publications encompassing exclusively therapeutical and nutraceutical approaches of that plant species were selected. For the patent screening regarding Ilex-derived products, the survey considered three patent databases: European Patent Office (EPO) (Espacenet), World Intellectual Property Organization, WIPO), and National Institute of Industrial Property (NIIP-Brazil). The criterion chosen to select the patents in the databases was the inclusion of the terms "Ilex paraguariensis" and "yerba mate" in the title and/or in the abstract, considering the patents issued from 2000 to 2020. Additionally, only patents with therapeutic and nutraceutical potential were considered on the survey. The screening and selection of the documents were performed independently by two researchers and the information cross-checked at the end. This review contributes to show the state of the art over the last 20 years on the knowledge about the therapeutical and nutraceutical usages of the yerba mate, associated to a certain number of issued patents. The patent survey afforded 62 relevant documents covering products based on Ilex paraguariensis biomass. Considering the number of patents issued, most of them are related to the pharmaceutical area (30), followed by food supplements and beverages (17), cosmetics (10) and, finally, nutraceuticals (5). A detailed analysis of the patents issued showed that most are related to pharmaceutical grade products, generally, marketed as oral and injectable compositions for treatments of obesity, insulin resistance, hyperlipemia and diabetes mellitus, arteriosclerosis, neurological diseases, and SARS-Cov-2, for example. In this work, a curious fact is that there are few patents for food, cosmetics, and nutraceuticals products containing yerba mate. Therefore, it seems to be relevant to take into account the potential of that species as source of bioactive compounds for the development of new products not only intended to the pharma sector. In this sense, 26 reports were identified showing possibilities and trendiness in developing new yerba mate based products, such as packaging, biopesticides, antiseptics, and food supply, expanding the possibilities of technological applications of this plant species.

Binding of Iron (II) Ions by Aqueous Extractions from Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis).

We studied the ability of an aqueous extract from yerba mate and a dry extract obtained on the basis of this aqueous extract to remove Fe(II) ions from an aqueous medium. Aqueous extracts from mate dose-dependently reduced the concentration of free Fe(II) ions assayed by the reaction with 1,10-phenanthroline. This can be attributed to polyphenolic compounds with iron-chelating properties present in aqueous extracts from mate, namely quercetin, rutin, caffeic and chlorogenic acids. These substances effectively removed Fe(II) ions from the medium (the initial concentration of these ions was 15 µM) in the concentration range of 20-30 µM. Binding of Fe(II) ions by aqueous mate extracts (due to the formation of chelate complexes with the participation of polyphenolic compounds) modified their absorption spectra in the visible region. Binding of Fe(II) ions can be a mechanism of the antioxidant action of yerba mate.

Beneficial effects of Ilex paraguariensis in the prevention of obesity-associated metabolic disorders in mice.

Obesity is a chronic condition involving inflammation and oxidative stress that commonly predisposes affected individuals to develop metabolic disorders. We hypothesize that Ilex paraguariensis (IP) can modulate oxidative stress and inflammation underpinning metabolic disorders caused by obesity. C57BL/6 mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD group) for 12 weeks. Concomitantly, some mice were treated with roasted IP (15 mg/ml - HFD + IP) or dimethyl fumarate (DMF) as a positive control (2 mg/ml - HFD + DMF). The control group received standard chow and water ad libitum. Histological analyses of fat tissue and liver, and quantification of mediators related to oxidative stress (Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1/NF-E2-related factor 2, NADP(H) quinone oxidoreductase-1 [NQO1], heme oxygenase 1 [HO1], and superoxide dismutase) as well as metabolic profile blood biomarkers (glucose, leptin, resistin, high-density lipoproteins [HDLs], and triglycerides) were performed. Metabolic disorders were prevented in mice treated with IP, as evidenced by the observation that glucose, HDL, and resistin levels were similar to those assessed in the control group. Morphological analyses showed that both IP and DMF treatments prevented hepatic steatosis and adipocyte hypertrophy in visceral adipose tissue. Finally, although the antioxidant response stimulated by IP was quite limited, significant effects were found on NQO1 and HO1 expression. In conclusion, IP has promising preventative effects on the development of metabolic disorders caused by obesity.

Effects of an alternative bleaching method for yerba mate leaves on total phenolic content: evaluation and prediction with soft-computing approaches.

BACKGROUND: The effects of an alternative bleaching method on the total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (AA) of yerba mate extracts were evaluated. Traditional bleaching ('zapeco') was compared with submerging the leaves in water followed by a hot air oven-drying process. Seven different approaches, i.e. linear model (LM), response surface model (RSM), Mamdani, Larsen, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) with the product (Prod) and the minimum (Min) operators, and ANFIS with automatically membership functions (Auto), were employed to compare the TPC of yerba mate extracts based on drying temperature and AA assays. RESULTS: The results showed that if leaves were bleached followed by drying at higher temperatures, we obtained higher AA and TPC values. For submerging bleaching treatment, RSM model delivered the best accuracy measures with a mean absolute error (MAE), average absolute percentage error (MAPE), and mean squared error (MSE) of 0.128, 0.006, and 0.028, respectively. The ANFIS Auto model was the best for traditional bleaching treatment, with MAE, MAPE, and MSE of 0.490, 0.013, and 0.612, respectively. CONCLUSION: The results suggest a second-order linear relation between drying temperature, AA assays to TPC, and a high level of relation complexity of drying temperature, AA assays, and TPC. The evaluated soft-computing approaches have the excellent ability to estimate TPC from bleached leaves. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) on Lipid Levels: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Several studies have evaluated the lipid-lowering properties of yerba mate, although the results were conflicting. The objective of this systematic review was to assess the effect of yerba mate consumption on lipid levels. A literature search was performed to detect observational and experimental studies that evaluated the association between yerba mate consumption and lipid levels. A quantitative analysis was performed with the subgroup of experimental studies. A meta-regression was performed considering the difference in baseline lipid values between the intervention and control groups as a covariate. Thirteen studies were considered eligible for this systematic review and seven studies (378 patients) were selected for quantitative analysis. In the qualitative analysis, the results were conflicting, both in the observational and in the experimental studies. In quantitative analysis, we found no differences in total cholesterol [mean difference 6.4 (CI 95% -2.2 to 15.0)], LDL-C [mean difference 5.5 (CI 95% - 1.5 to 12.6)], HDL-C [mean difference 0.4 (CI 95% -2.8 to 3.7)] and triglycerides [mean difference 5.7 (CI 95% 0.0 to 11.4)] levels when comparing the yerba mate and control groups. According to meta-regression, differences between baseline levels could influence the findings on total cholesterol and LDL-C but not on HDL-C or triglycerides. In conclusion, this research showed that yerba mate consumption was not associated with a significant change in lipid levels. Since the results are based on small inconclusive studies, more research is needed to confirm these findings.

Chimarrão consumption and prognostic factors in breast cancer: Correlation with antioxidants and blood caffeine levels.

Breast cancer is the second most common malignancy among women. Ilex paraguariensis A. St. Hil, known as yerba mate, is widely consumed in southern Brazil as a hot infusion drink known as chimarrão. This herb has a complex chemical composition and is rich in antioxidants, which may interfere in the course of chronic inflammatory diseases as breast cancer. This study investigated the impact of chimarrão consumption on the clinicopathological profile of women with breast cancer attended at Francisco Beltrão Cancer Hospital, Paraná, Brazil. Blood antioxidants and caffeine profiles were assessed. Decreases in reduced glutathione and metallothionein levels, and increase in catalase activity were observed among breast cancer patients that were chimarrão consumers. The levels of circulating caffeine in breast cancer patients with luminal A tumors were higher than those in patients with luminal B and HER-2 subtypes. Furthermore, overweight patients presented higher caffeine levels than the eutrophic ones. It was found positive associations between chimarrão intake and high body mass index, and chimarrão intake and menopause at diagnosis. Altogether, these findings suggest that chimarrão consumption affects the blood antioxidants of breast cancer patients, and that the caffeine present in this mixture may favor the development of tumor of good prognosis. HIGHLIGHTS: Chimarrão consumption may affect the course of chronic inflammatory diseases, as breast cancer. Chimarrão intake changed blood antioxidants in breast cancer patients who were current consumers when compared to the non-consumers ones. High levels of caffeine were detected in patients bearing luminal A tumors, suggesting a protective role.

Socio-Cultural Significance of Yerba Maté among Syrian Residents and Diaspora.

Socio-Cultural Significance of Yerba Maté among Syrian Residents and Diaspora. Syria is the world's second-largest importer of the dried leaves of Ilex paraguariensis A.St.-Hil., commonly known as yerba maté. The unique story of yerba maté in the Syrian beverage culture started at the beginning of the twentieth century when Syrian migrants returning from South America brought the beverage with them. The overall aim of our study is to understand yerba maté use among Syrians and its role as an essential part of the Syrian beverage culture. We compare yerba maté consumption on spatial, gender, and religious bases through semi-structured interviews with 50 respondents, with equal participation among genders, place of residence, and cultural-religious groups (Sunni, Alawite, Christian, Druze, and Ismaili). We found that the Alawite and Druze groups have the highest yerba maté consumption, and that men drink more than women. Yerba maté was the most preferred stimulant drink among participants, followed by coffee and tea, respectively. Interviews reveal social and cultural factors, perceived addiction, perceived pleasure, and perceived health properties as the drivers behind yerba maté consumption in Syria. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12231-021-09523-6.

Ilex paraguariensis, white mulberry and chromium picolinate in patients with pre-diabetes.

AIM: to evaluate if a nutraceutical compound containing Ilex paraguariensis, White Mulberry and Chromium Picolinate can ameliorate glycemic status in patients with pre-diabetes. METHODS: we enrolled patients with IFG or IGT, not taking other hypoglycemic compounds. Patients were randomized to take placebo or the nutraceutical compound for 3 months, in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design. Both treatments were self-administered once a day, 1 tablet during the breakfast. RESULTS: a reduction of FPG was observed with the nutraceutical combination (-7.8%). Furthermore, there was a decrease of HOMA-IR with the nutraceutical combination (-7.9%). M value was higher (p < 0.05 vs baseline and p < 0.05 vs placebo) at the end of the treatment. We obtained a reduction of Tg with the nutraceutical combination (-8.3%). About 16.6% of patients treated with nutraceutical returned to have a normal glycemia (< 100 mg/dL), and all patients had an improvement of insulin-resistance, in particular 67% of patients returned to have a M value inside range of normal insulin sensitivity. CONCLUSIONS: a nutraceutical containing Ilex paraguariensis, White Mulberry and Chromium Picolinate at 500 mg can be helpful in improving glycemia and Tg value, in patients with pre-diabetes.

Ilex paraguariensis Attenuates Changes in Mortality, Behavioral and Biochemical Parameters Associated to Methyl Malonate or Malonate Exposure in Drosophila melanogaster.

Methylmalonic acidemia is a genetic disease characterized by accumulation of organic acids, such as methylmalonic (MMA) and malonic (MA) acids. Considering that the accumulation of MMA and MA causes several damages due to oxidative stress, antioxidants are thought to play a pivotal role in preventing deleterious effects associated with exposure to such compounds. Ilex paraguariensis (IP) was used here to test the hypothesis that supplementation with the aqueous extract of this plant could exert protective effect against MMA or MA induced mortality, behavioral and/or biochemical changes in Drosophila melanogaster (DM). Initially, a curve time- and dose-response to MMA (1-10 mM), MA (1-10 mM) and IP (63-500 µM) was performed. Thereafter, flies were concomitantly exposed to MA (5 mM), MMA (5 mM) and/or IP (250 µg/mL) during 15 days for survival assay, and for 48 hs to MA (1 or 5 mM), MMA (1 or 5 mM) and/or IP (250 µg/mL) for subsequent investigations. Both MMA and MA exposure resulted in higher incidence of mortality, a worse performance in the negative geotaxis assay and increased locomotion in open-field test as compared with control group. Furthermore, a marked increase in non-protein thiol (NPSH) and in thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) levels, decrease in superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities, and decrease in MTT and resazurin reduction were noted in MMA or MA treated groups. IP treatment offered significant protection against all alterations associated to MMA or MA exposure. This study confirm the hypothesis that supplementation with IP offers protection against changes associated to MMA or MA exposure in DM, due, at least in part, to its antioxidant effect.

Spray-Dried Yerba Mate Extract Capsules: Clinical Evaluation and Antioxidant Potential in Healthy Individuals.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the clinical effects and antioxidant potential of spray-dried yerba mate extract (SDME) capsules in healthy individuals. Fourteen healthy volunteers consumed three capsules of SDME three times daily. Measurements were carried out at the baseline and after 7, 30, and 60 days of SDME capsules intake. Electrocardiogram, hematological, urinary, and biochemical parameters analyzed remained within the normal values during all the study. SDME capsules ingestion increased significantly serum antioxidant capacity (after 7 and 30 days) and reduced glutathione values (after 7 and 60 days), and the superoxide dismutase (after 7, 30, and 60 days), catalase (after 7 and 30 days), and paraoxonase-1 activities (after 7 days); and decreased lipid hydroperoxides (after 30 and 60 days) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances levels (after 7 and 30 days). No change was observed for glutathione peroxidase activity after SDME capsules intake. The present study showed that SDME capsules ingestion by healthy individuals did not promote clinical changes and promoted an increase of antioxidant biomarkers with a concomitant decrease of lipid peroxidation biomarkers in a short and prolonged manner.

Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis, A. St.-Hil.) de novo transcriptome assembly based on tissue specific genomic expression profiles.

BACKGROUND: The most common infusion in southern Latin-American countries is prepared with dried leaves of Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil., an aboriginal ancestral beverage known for its high polyphenols concentration currently consumed in > 90% of homes in Argentina, in Paraguay and Uruguay. The economy of entire provinces heavily relies on the production, collection and manufacture of Ilex paraguariensis, the fifth plant species with highest antioxidant activity. Polyphenols are associated to relevant health benefits including strong antioxidant properties. Despite its regional relevance and potential biotechnological applications, little is known about functional genomics and genetics underlying phenotypic variation of relevant traits. By generating tissue specific transcriptomic profiles, we aimed to comprehensively annotate genes in the Ilex paraguariensis phenylpropanoid pathway and to evaluate differential expression profiles. RESULTS: In this study we generated a reliable transcriptome assembly based on a collection of 15 RNA-Seq libraries from different tissues of Ilex paraguariensis. A total of 554 million RNA-Seq reads were assembled into 193,897 transcripts, where 24,612 annotated full-length transcripts had complete ORF. We assessed the transcriptome assembly quality, completeness and accuracy using BUSCO and TransRate; consistency was also evaluated by experimentally validating 11 predicted genes by PCR and sequencing. Functional annotation against KEGG Pathway database identified 1395 unigenes involved in biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, 531 annotated transcripts corresponded to the phenylpropanoid pathway. The top 30 differentially expressed genes among tissue revealed genes involved in photosynthesis and stress response. These significant differences were then validated by qRT-PCR. CONCLUSIONS: Our study is the first to provide data from whole genome gene expression profiles in different Ilex paraguariensis tissues, experimentally validating in-silico predicted genes key to the phenylpropanoid (antioxidant) pathway. Our results provide essential genomic data of potential use in breeding programs for polyphenol content. Further studies are necessary to assess if the observed expression variation in the phenylpropanoid pathway annotated genes is related to variations in leaves' polyphenol content at the population scale. These results set the current reference for Ilex paraguariensis genomic studies and provide a substantial contribution to research and biotechnological applications of phenylpropanoid secondary metabolites.

Heavy drinkers of Ilex paraguariensis beverages show lower lipid profiles but higher body weight.

Obesity is a widely recognized risk factor for several diseases, reaching an epidemic magnitude worldwide. Natural polyphenols may improve blood lipids and body weight, but their clinical relevance in the general population remains unclear. Thus, we aimed to analyze the relationship of intake of Ilex paraguariensis (I. paraguariensis) beverages to lipid profiles and body weight in a large patient population. Patients were recruited to participate in an educational program to change habits to a healthy lifestyle. Anamnesis, clinical and laboratory assessments were conducted at study enrollment and during follow­up. I. paraguariensis beverages were defined according to preparation as obtained by repeated cold water extraction (CWE), hot water infusions, or water and sugar decoction. Heavy drinkers were defined as those persons consuming >1 L/day of one or more preparation types. Participants (N = 18,287) aged ≥18 years entered the study. Overall prevalence of I. paraguariensis consumption was 91.2%. All three forms were drunk by 35.7%, whereas CWE + hot water infusion and CWE alone by 28.4% and 14.5% participants, respectively. Heavy CWE drinkers had lower total cholesterol (191.4 ± 49.4 vs. 194.6 ± 48.3 mg/dl, p = .02) and lower low­density lipoprotein cholesterol (118.6 ± 38.9 vs. 121.2 ± 47.1 mg/dl, p = .001), but body weight was higher (81.1 ± 16.8 vs. 77.2 ± 16.4 kg, p < .0001) compared with moderate drinkers. Fasting glucose was lower (104.5 ± 48.7 vs. 107.2 ± 49.5 mg/dl, p < .001), and consumption of carbohydrates was higher (36.3% vs. 28.7%, p < .001). A low­lipids high­body­weight paradox could be observed in a population of heavy drinkers of I. paraguariensis beverages. Induced hypoglycemia and compensatory higher intake of refined carbohydrates may represent a possible cause.

NMR-based approach reveals seasonal metabolic changes in mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.).

Ilex paraguariensis (mate) is a species native to South America and is widely consumed in countries such Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Brazil. Mate consumption is associated with several phytotherapeutic functions, in addition to its cultural and regional importance. However, the harvest period can affect the properties of the mate, due to variations in the constituent proportions, as a consequence of seasonal changes. In this work, we employed nuclear magnetic resonance and chemometrics to evaluate the chemical variations in leaf extracts of I. paraguariensis over the four seasons of the year. We found significant changes in the levels of glucose, myo-inositol, caffeine, theobromine, and fatty acids. These changes can be related to resource allocation for the flowering period, or to responses to environmental stresses, such as temperature.

The yerba mate intake has a neutral effect on bone: A case-control study in postmenopausal women.

Nutritional factors have been associated with osteoporosis and fractures. The intake of coffee may increase the risk of fracture whereas the intake of black and green tea is associated with its reduction. Recently, consumption of yerba mate was associated with increased bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. Nonetheless, its influence on fracture is not known. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of yerba mate tea intake on fractures, bone markers, calcium homeostasis, and oxidative stress in postmenopausal women. A case-control study was carried out in South Brazil, 46 women with fractures and 49 controls completed the study. There was no significant difference between the frequency of fractures in women who drank mate tea and women who did not (48.3% vs. 48.5%, p = .99). Moreover, there was no significant difference concerning the serum levels of total calcium, phosphorus, PTH, vitamin D, P1NP, and CTX in the subjects with the history of yerba mate use when compared to controls. Higher serum levels of NOx were found in women who drank the yerba mate infusion. In conclusion, the yerba mate intake is not associated with fracture, and it appears to have a neutral effect on the bone metabolism.

Mate tea (Ilex paraguariensis) improves bone formation in the alveolar socket healing after tooth extraction in rats.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of mate tea (MT) [Ilex paraguariensis] on alveolar socket healing after tooth extraction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sixteen male rats were divided into MT and control groups. MT was administered by intragastric gavage at a dose of 20 mg/kg/day for 28 days before and 28 days after right maxillary incisor extraction. The control group received an equal volume of water. Histopathological and histometric analysis of the neoformed bone area and osteocyte density were performed, as well as immunohistochemical analysis of osteocalcin (OCN), receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL), osteoprotegerin (OPG), tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP), and manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) in the alveolar socket. Calcium, phosphorus, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and malondialdehyde (MDA) were measured in plasma, whereas TRAP activity was determined in serum. RESULTS: Histometry evidenced an increase in bone area (P < 0.0001) and osteocyte density (P < 0.0001). MT increased immunolabeling of MnSOD (P < 0.001), OCN (P < 0.0001), RANKL (P < 0.001), OPG (P < 0.0001), and TRAP (P < 0.001). Calcium and phosphorus concentrations did not differ between the groups. In addition, MT enhanced ALP (P < 0.05) and TRAP (P < 0.0001) activities. MT increased the TAC (P < 0.001), whereas it reduced MDA concentrations (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: MT increases bone area and osteocyte density in the alveolar socket healing on day 28 after tooth extraction. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Regular MT ingestion improves the antioxidant defenses and bone formation, which is beneficial for alveolar socket bone healing after tooth extraction.