Radiocarbon chronology of Iron Age Jerusalem reveals calibration offsets and architectural developments.

Reconstructing the absolute chronology of Jerusalem during the time it served as the Judahite Kingdom's capital is challenging due to its dense, still inhabited urban nature and the plateau shape of the radiocarbon calibration curve during part of this period. We present 103 radiocarbon dates from reliable archaeological contexts in five excavation areas of Iron Age Jerusalem, which tie between archaeology and biblical history. We exploit Jerusalem's rich past, including textual evidence and vast archaeological remains, to overcome difficult problems in radiocarbon dating, including establishing a detailed chronology within the long-calibrated ranges of the Hallstatt Plateau and recognizing short-lived regional offsets in atmospheric 14C concentrations. The key to resolving these problems is to apply stringent field methodologies using microarchaeological methods, leading to densely radiocarbon-dated stratigraphic sequences. Using these sequences, we identify regional offsets in atmospheric 14C concentrations c. 720 BC, and in the historically secure stratigraphic horizon of the Babylonian destruction in 586 BC. The latter is verified by 100 single-ring measurements between 624 to 572 BC. This application of intense 14C dating sheds light on the reconstruction of Jerusalem in the Iron Age. It provides evidence for settlement in the 12th to 10th centuries BC and that westward expansion had already begun by the 9th century BC, with extensive architectural projects undertaken throughout the city in this period. This was followed by significant damage and rejuvenation of the city subsequent to the mid-eight century BC earthquake, after which the city was heavily fortified and continued to flourish until the Babylonian destruction.

The Genetic Origin of Daunians and the Pan-Mediterranean Southern Italian Iron Age Context.

The geographical location and shape of Apulia, a narrow land stretching out in the sea at the South of Italy, made this region a Mediterranean crossroads connecting Western Europe and the Balkans. Such movements culminated at the beginning of the Iron Age with the Iapygian civilization which consisted of three cultures: Peucetians, Messapians, and Daunians. Among them, the Daunians left a peculiar cultural heritage, with one-of-a-kind stelae and pottery, but, despite the extensive archaeological literature, their origin has been lost to time. In order to shed light on this and to provide a genetic picture of Iron Age Southern Italy, we collected and sequenced human remains from three archaeological sites geographically located in Northern Apulia (the area historically inhabited by Daunians) and radiocarbon dated between 1157 and 275 calBCE. We find that Iron Age Apulian samples are still distant from the genetic variability of modern-day Apulians, they show a degree of genetic heterogeneity comparable with the cosmopolitan Republican and Imperial Roman civilization, even though a few kilometers and centuries separate them, and they are well inserted into the Iron Age Pan-Mediterranean genetic landscape. Our study provides for the first time a window on the genetic make-up of pre-Roman Apulia, whose increasing connectivity within the Mediterranean landscape, would have contributed to laying the foundation for modern genetic variability. In this light, the genetic profile of Daunians may be compatible with an at least partial autochthonous origin, with plausible contributions from the Balkan peninsula.

A Genetic History of the Near East from an aDNA Time Course Sampling Eight Points in the Past 4,000 Years.

The Iron and Classical Ages in the Near East were marked by population expansions carrying cultural transformations that shaped human history, but the genetic impact of these events on the people who lived through them is little-known. Here, we sequenced the whole genomes of 19 individuals who each lived during one of four time periods between 800 BCE and 200 CE in Beirut on the Eastern Mediterranean coast at the center of the ancient world's great civilizations. We combined these data with published data to traverse eight archaeological periods and observed any genetic changes as they arose. During the Iron Age (∼1000 BCE), people with Anatolian and South-East European ancestry admixed with people in the Near East. The region was then conquered by the Persians (539 BCE), who facilitated movement exemplified in Beirut by an ancient family with Egyptian-Lebanese admixed members. But the genetic impact at a population level does not appear until the time of Alexander the Great (beginning 330 BCE), when a fusion of Asian and Near Easterner ancestry can be seen, paralleling the cultural fusion that appears in the archaeological records from this period. The Romans then conquered the region (31 BCE) but had little genetic impact over their 600 years of rule. Finally, during the Ottoman rule (beginning 1516 CE), Caucasus-related ancestry penetrated the Near East. Thus, in the past 4,000 years, three limited admixture events detectably impacted the population, complementing the historical records of this culturally complex region dominated by the elite with genetic insights from the general population.

Early evidence for mounted horseback riding in northwest China.

Horseback riding was a transformative force in the ancient world, prompting radical shifts in human mobility, warfare, trade, and interaction. In China, domestic horses laid the foundation for trade, communication, and state infrastructure along the ancient Silk Road, while also stimulating key military, social, and political changes in Chinese society. Nonetheless, the emergence and adoption of mounted horseback riding in China is still poorly understood, particularly due to a lack of direct archaeological data. Here we present a detailed osteological study of eight horse skeletons dated to ca. 350 BCE from the sites of Shirenzigou and Xigou in Xinjiang, northwest China, prior to the formalization of Silk Road trade across this key region. Our analyses reveal characteristic osteological changes associated with equestrian practices on all specimens. Alongside other relevant archaeological evidence, these data provide direct evidence for mounted horseback riding, horse equipment, and mounted archery in northwest China by the late first millennium BCE. Most importantly, our results suggest that this region may have played a crucial role in the spread of equestrian technologies from the Eurasian interior to the settled civilizations of early China, where horses facilitated the rise of the first united Chinese empires and the emergence of transcontinental trade networks.

Application of natural sciences methodology in archaeological study of Iron Age burials in Latvia: pilot study.

Natural sciences provide several modern methodologies that could be successfully applied in archaeological studies. In this pilot study, archaeological human remains from two Iron Age cemeteries (7th-twelfth centuries AD), Lejasbiteni and Cunkani-Drengeri, which are located in different regions of Latvia, were studied. We applied ancient DNA (aDNA) and tooth enamel peptide analysis to determine the biological sex of the individuals. In addition, aDNA analysis was used to perform mtDNA haplogroup analysis. In most cases, the results of aDNA analysis regarding the biological sex of individuals coincided with the gender assigned based on grave orientation and grave goods. The results of sex determination using peptide analysis in all four individuals for whom data were available matched the possible gender. Of the 17 samples that had sufficient DNA for sequencing, seven samples had enough reads to perform mtDNA haplogroup analysis. The H2a2a, I4a1, H2a2a1, and H16c mtDNA haplogroups were identified in the individuals from the Lejasbiteni cemetery, while the T2b and K1a + 150 mtDNA haplogroups were identified in the individuals from the Cunkani-Drengeri cemetery. Overall, the obtained results demonstrated the feasibility of applying aDNA and tooth enamel peptide analysis for biological sex determination within archaeological studies. The availability of human aDNA data will be highly useful for investigating the demographic history and social structures in Iron Age Latvia.

Direct evidence of a large Northern European Roman period martial event and postbattle corpse manipulation.

New archaeological excavations at Alken Enge, Jutland, Denmark, have revealed a comprehensive assemblage of disarticulated human remains within a 75-ha wetland area. A minimum of 82 individuals have been uncovered. Based on the distribution, the total population is estimated to be greater than 380 individuals, exclusively male and predominantly adult. The chronological radiocarbon evidence of the human bones indicates that they belong to a single, large event in the early first century AD. The bones show a high frequency of unhealed trauma from sharp-edged weapons, which, together with finds of military equipment, suggests that the find is of martial character. Taphonomic traces indicate that the bones were exposed to animal gnawing for a period of between 6 mo and 1 y before being deposited in the lake. Furthermore, the find situations, including collections of bones, ossa coxae threaded onto a stick, and cuts and scraping marks, provide evidence of the systematic treatment of the human corpses after the time of exposure. The finds are interpreted as the remains of an organized and possibly ritually embedded clearing of a battlefield, including the physical manipulation of the partly skeletonized bones of the deceased fighters and subsequent deposition in the lake. The date places the finds in the context of the Germanic region at the peak of the Roman expansion northward and provides the earliest direct archaeological evidence of large-scale conflict among the Germanic populations and a demonstration of hitherto unrecognized postbattle practices.

Where Asia meets Europe - recent insights from ancient human genomics.

CONTEXT: The peopling of Europe by modern humans is a widely debated topic in the field of modern and ancient genomics. While several recent syntheses have focussed on this topic, little has been discussed about the genetic history of populations in the continent's surrounding regions. OBJECTIVE: We explore genetic transformations in three key areas that played an essential role in the formation of the European genetic landscape through time, focussing on the periods spanning from the Epipalaeolithic/Mesolithic and up until the Iron Age. METHODS: We review published ancient genomic studies and integrate the associated data to provide a quantification and visualisation of major trends in the population histories of the Near East, the western Eurasian Steppe and North East Europe. RESULTS: We describe cross-regional as well as localised prehistoric demographic shifts and discuss potential research directions while highlighting geo-temporal gaps in the data. CONCLUSION: In recent years, archaeogenetic studies have contributed to the understanding of human genetic diversity through time in regions located at the doorstep of Europe. Further studies focussing on these areas will allow for a better characterisation of genetic shifts and regionally-specific patterns of admixture across western Eurasia.

Iron Forms Fe(II) and Fe(III) Determination in Pre-Roman Iron Age Archaeological Pottery as a New Tool in Archaeometry.

This article presents studies on iron speciation in the pottery obtained from archaeological sites. The determination of iron forms Fe(II) and Fe(III) has been provided by a very simple test that is available for routine analysis involving the technique of molecular absorption spectrophotometry (UV-Vis) in the acid leachable fraction of pottery. The elemental composition of the acid leachable fraction has been determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Additionally, the total concentration of the selected elements has been determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry with energy dispersion (EDXRF). The results of the iron forms' determinations in archaeological pottery samples have been applied in the archaeometric studies on the potential recognition of the pottery production technology, definitely going beyond the traditional analysis of the pottery colour.

The Bronze and Iron Age populations of the Armenian Highland in the genetic history of Armenians.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the biological diversity of the late Bronze and Iron Age populations in the Armenian Highland by nonmetric cranial traits, evaluate the genetic continuity in the development of the modern Armenian gene pool, and compare the results obtained with genetic data. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-eight nonmetric cranial traits were scored on 498 adult crania from different late Bronze and Iron Age cemeteries, as well as from modern Armenians and other European populations. We carried out a biodistance analysis between populations using the mean measure of divergence (MMD) statistics, tested the spatial-temporal model of population structure, and assessed the diversity within the late Bronze and early Iron Ages by using the values of variability index (Fst). RESULTS: The biodistance analysis revealed a close relationship among different ancient Armenian populations and between the average frequencies of the three sequential periods (late Bronze Age, early Iron Age I and II) and modern Armenians. A gradual increase of variability (Fst) within the three successive periods was observed. DISCUSSION: The analysis of nonmetric trait data reflects deep roots and continuity in the formation of the Armenian population. Since at least the Late Bronze Age, owing to permanent isolation, no significant changes have occurred in the Armenian gene pool. An increase in variability over the successive periods reflects the process of population differentiation from a single gene pool while maintaining average trait frequencies. The congruence of the results obtained with the genetic data confirms, once more, the possibility of using nonmetric cranial traits as a proxy for genetic markers.

Gendered division of labor in a Celtic community? A comparison of sex differences in entheseal changes and long bone shape and robusticity in the pre-Roman population of Verona (Italy, third-first century BC).

OBJECTIVES: The presence of a gendered subdivision of labor has been bioarchaeologically investigated in various prehistoric and historical contexts. Little is known, however, about the type of differences in daily activities characterizing men and women among the Celtic communities of Italy. The focus of the present study is the analysis of differences in patterns of entheseal changes (ECs) and long bone shape and robusticity between sexes among the Cenomani Gauls of Seminario Vescovile (SV-Verona, Italy, third-first century BC). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The sample includes 56 adult individuals (22 females and 34 males). Presence of ECs on nine bilateral postcranial attachment sites, and values of humeral and femoral shape and robusticity indices based on external measurements were compared between sexes by means of generalized linear models and Mann-Whitney tests. RESULTS: Results show a lack of difference between sexes in long bone shape and robusticity, and a higher incidence of upper and, especially, lower limb ECs in males. DISCUSSION: These results suggest the presence of sex-specific activities at SV mostly related to farming and differently influencing the considered variables. Also, this study suggests the relevance of a series of nonbiomechanical factors (developmental, hormonal, genetic, and methodological) when attempting biocultural reconstructions from osteoarchaeological samples.

Fourteen Years of Archaeological and Heritage Research in the Iringa Region, Tanzania.

The Iringa Region is famous among archaeologists for the Acheulean site of Isimila, and among historians as the stronghold where Chief Mkwawa led the Hehe resistance against German colonial forces. However, our research reveals that Iringa has a rich archaeological record that spans the period from the Stone Age into the recent past. This article summarizes the results of 14 years of research by our team, the Iringa Region Archaeological Project (IRAP). Since 2006, IRAP members have recorded 67 sites, and this only scratches the surface of the archaeological potential in the area. These sites, some of which were recorded in conjunction with local participants, have archaeological component characteristic of the Early, Middle, and Later Stone Age, the Iron Age, and the recent past. We consider the archaeological and historical value of Iringa to be high and hope that this work inspires future research, tourism, and conservation efforts in the area.

La région d'Iringa en Tanzanie est. reconnue par les archéologues pour le site acheuléen d'Isimila et parmi les historiens comme le fief où le chef Mkwawa a dirigé la résistance du Hehe contre les forces coloniales allemandes. Cependant, nos recherches révèlent qu'Iringa possède de riches archives archéologiques allant de l'âge de pierre au passé récent. Cet article résume les résultats de quatorze années de recherche de notre équipe, le projet archéologique de la région d'Iringa (PARI). Depuis 2006, les membres du PARI ont enregistré 67 sites, ce qui ne fait qu'effleurer la surface du potentiel archéologique de la région. Les sites identifiés présentent des éléments archéologiques caractéristiques de l'âge de pierre précoce, moyen et postérieur, de l'âge du fer, et du passé historique. En outre, un certain nombre de sites culturels importants ont été enregistrés en collaboration avec des participants locaux. Nous considérons que la valeur archéologique et historique d'Iringa est. élevée et espérons que ces travaux inspireront la recherche, le tourisme et la conservation dans cette région importante.

A Micro-Analytical Study of the Scarabs of the Necropolis of Vinha das Caliças (Portugal).

Five scarabs and one scaraboid found in Vinha das Caliças 4 (Beja, Portugal) were analyzed using a micro-analytical methodology in order to determine their mineralogical and chemical composition. Microstructural characterization and chemical analysis revealed that all were composed of a white body of crushed feldspathic sand covered by a lead-rich, alkaline-depleted silicate blue-green glaze showing evident signs of glass deterioration. Variable pressure scanning electron microscopy with X-ray energy dispersive spectrometry, handheld X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, and micro X-ray diffraction results show that blue-green color of the glaze was produced by using copper ions (Cu2+) in conjunction with the lead antimonate bindheimite, a yellow-colored opacifier. The introduction of small amounts of tin in the structure of bindheimite enabled the production of a ternary Pb-Sb-Sn oxide. Tin, which was most likely added with the copper source (bronze scrapings), is known to facilitate the crystallization of bindheimite. The results are consistent with the five scarabs and one scaraboid being manufactured in Egypt. This study, the first archeometric study of scarabs found in the Iberian peninsula, has greatly contributed to the understanding of the influence of the Eastern and Central Mediterranean world in the Southwestern Iberia during the first millennium B.C.

Integrating Remote Sensing and Geophysics for Exploring Early Nomadic Funerary Architecture in the "Siberian Valley of the Kings".

This article analyses the architecture of the Early Iron Age royal burial mound Tunnug 1 in the "Siberian Valley of the Kings" in Tuva Republic, Russia. This large monument is paramount for the archaeological exploration of the early Scythian period in the Eurasian steppes, but environmental parameters make research on site difficult and require the application of a diversity of methods. We thus integrate WorldView-2 and ALOS-2 remote sensing data, geoelectric resistivity and geomagnetic survey results, photogrammetry-based DEMs, and ortho-photographs, as well as excavation in order to explore different aspects of the funerary architecture of this early nomadic monument. We find that the large royal tomb comprises of a complex internal structure of radial features and chambers, and a rich periphery of funerary and ritual structures. Geomagnetometry proved to be the most effective approach for a detailed evaluation of the funerary architecture in our case. The parallel application of several surveying methods is advisable since dataset comparison is indispensable for providing context.

Land Snail Shell Beads in the Sub-Saharan Archaeological Record: When, Where, and Why?

Shell beads are well established in the archaeological record of sub-Saharan Africa and appear as early as 75,000 BP; however, most research has focused on ostrich eggshell (OES) and various marine mollusc species. Beads made from various land snails shells (LSS), frequently described as Achatina, also appear to be widespread. Yet tracking their appearance and distribution is difficult because LSS beads are often intentionally or unintentionally lumped with OES beads, there are no directly dated examples, and bead reporting in general is highly variable in the archaeological literature. Nevertheless, Achatina and other potential cases of LSS beads are present at over 80 archaeological sites in at least eight countries, spanning the early Holocene to recent past. Here, we collate published cases and report on several more. We also present a new case from Magubike Rockshelter in southern Tanzania with the first directly dated LSS beads, which we use to illustrate methods for identifying LSS as a raw material. Despite the long history of OES bead production on the continent and the abundance of land snails available throughout the Pleistocene, LSS beads appear only in the late Holocene and are almost exclusively found in Iron Age contexts. We consider possible explanations for the late adoption of land snails as a raw material for beadmaking within the larger context of environmental, economic, and social processes in Holocene Africa. By highlighting the existence of these artifacts, we hope to facilitate more in-depth research on the timing, production, and distribution of LSS beads in African prehistory.

Les perles de coquillages sont bien établies dans les archives archéologiques de l'Afrique subsaharienne et apparaissent dès 75 000 BP, mais la plupart des recherches ont porté sur la coquille d'œuf d'autruche (OES) et diverses espèces de mollusques marins. Les perles fabriquées à partir de diverses coquilles d'escargots terrestres (LSS), souvent décrites comme Achatina, semblent également être répandues. Cependant, le suivi de leur apparence et de leur distribution est. difficile parce que les billes LSS sont souvent volontairement ou involontairement regroupées avec des billes OES, il n'y a pas d'exemples directement datés, et les rapports sur les perles en général sont très variables dans la littérature archéologique. Néanmoins, Achatina et d'autres cas potentiels de perles LSS sont présents sur plus de 80 sites archéologiques dans au moins huit pays, couvrant le début de l'Holocène à un passé récent. Ici, nous rassemblons les cas publiés et rapportons plusieurs autres cas. Nous présentons également un nouveau cas de Magubike Rockshelter dans le sud de la Tanzanie avec les premières perles LSS directement datées, que nous utilisons pour illustrer les méthodes d'identification du LSS comme matière première. Malgré la longue histoire de la production de perles d'OES sur le continent et l'abondance d'escargots terrestres disponibles tout au long du Pléistocène, les perles de LSS n'apparaissent qu'à la fin de l'Holocène et sont presque exclusivement trouvées dans des contextes de l'âge du fer. Nous considérons les explications possibles de l'adoption tardive des escargots terrestres en tant que matière première pour la fabrication de perles dans le contexte plus large des processus environnementaux, économiques et sociaux en Afrique de l'Holocène. En mettant en évidence l'existence de ces artefacts, nous espérons faciliter des recherches plus approfondies sur le calendrier, la production et la distribution des perles LSS dans la préhistoire africaine.

Excavations at Mlambalasi Rockshelter: a Terminal Pleistocene to Recent Iron Age Record in Southern Tanzania.

The Mlambalasi rockshelter in the Iringa Region of southern Tanzania has rich artifactual deposits spanning the Later Stone Age (LSA), Iron Age, and historic periods. Middle Stone Age (MSA) artifacts are also present on the slope in front of the rockshelter. Extensive, systematic excavations in 2006 and 2010 by members of the Iringa Region Archaeological Project (IRAP) illustrate a complex picture of repeated occupations and reuse of the rockshelter during an important time in human history. Direct dates on Achatina shell and ostrich eggshell (OES) beads suggest that the earliest occupation levels excavated at Mlambalasi, which are associated with human burials, are terminal Pleistocene in age. This is exceptional given the rarity of archaeological sites, particularly those with human remains and other preserved organic material, from subtropical Africa between 200,000 and 10,000 years before present. This paper reports on the excavations to date and analysis of artifactual finds from the site. The emerging picture is one of varied, ephemeral use over millennia as diverse human groups were repeatedly attracted to this fixed feature on the landscape.

L'abri sous roche Mlambalasi dans la région d'Iringa au sud de la Tanzanie est riche en artéfacts du Paléolithique supérieur jusqu'à l'âge du fer et la période historique. Des artéfacts du Paléolithique moyen sont présents sur le versant en face de l'abri. Des fouilles extensives et systématiques réalisées par l'équipe d'Iringa Region Archaeological Project (IRAP) révèlent une image complexe de l'utilisation et de la réutilisation de l'abri sous roche pendant un moment important dans l'histoire de l'humanité. Des datations directes de coquilles d'Achatina et de perles en coquilles d'autruches (OES) suggèrent que l'occupation la plus ancienne excavée à Mlambalasi, associée aux sépultures humaines, parvient d'une phase terminale du Pléistocène. Ceci est exceptionnel car les sites archéologiques, en particulier contenant des corps humains et d'autres matières organiques préservées, sont rares en Afrique subtropicale entre 200,000-10,000 années avant le présent. Cet article présente les fouilles effectuées jusqu'à ce jour ainsi que l'analyse des artéfacts trouvés sur le site. L'image qui ressort est celle d'une utilisation variée et éphémère à travers les millénaires au fur et à mesure que divers groupes ont été attirés à cet endroit permanent dans le paysage.

Maternal and paternal genetic diversity of ancient sheep in Estonia from the Late Bronze Age to the post-medieval period and comparison with other regions in Eurasia.

Sheep were among the first domesticated animals to appear in Estonia in the late Neolithic and became one of the most widespread livestock species in the region from the Late Bronze Age onwards. However, the origin and historical expansion of local sheep populations in Estonia remain poorly understood. Here, we analysed fragments of the hypervariable D-loop of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA; 213 bp) and the Y-chromosome SRY gene (130 bp) extracted from 31 archaeological sheep bones dated from approximately 800 BC to 1700 AD. The ancient DNA data of sheep from Estonia were compared with ancient sheep from Finland as well as a set of contemporary sheep breeds from across Eurasia in order to place them in a wider phylogeographical context. The analysis shows that: (i) 24 successfully amplified and analysed mtDNA sequences of ancient sheep cluster into two haplogroups, A and B, of which B is predominant; (ii) four of the ancient mtDNA haplotypes are novel; (iii) higher mtDNA haplotype diversity occurred during the Middle Ages as compared to other periods, a fact concordant with the historical context of expanding international trade during the Middle Ages; (iv) the proportion of rarer haplotypes declined during the expansion of sheep from the Near Eastern domestication centre to the northern European region; (v) three male samples showed the presence of the characteristic northern European haplotype, SNP G-oY1 of the Y-chromosome, and represent the earliest occurrence of this haplotype. Our results provide the first insight into the genetic diversity and phylogeographical background of ancient sheep in Estonia and provide basis for further studies on the temporal fluctuations of ancient sheep populations.

La Tène Horse Remains from Alba Iulia CX 143 Complex: A Whole Story to Tell.

The present paper deals with the archaeozoological investigation carried out on a horse skeleton discovered in a Late Iron Age La Tène tomb (coded CX 143) in Alba Iulia, Romania. The paper presents all the results of the investigation, with a description of finds, adding a detailed assessment of the dentition with some interesting conclusions on the usage of a horse bit and the possible consequences of this use. The morphological features of the horse indicate a 7-8-year-old male individual, with a recalculated height of 1200-1300 mm. What is also stressed in the investigated sample is the lack of the characteristic pathological lesions typical for horseback riding but showing distinctive elements of bit wear. A comparative perspective over the few findings from the same period is provided to ensure the framing of the identified individual into the much larger historical context.

Tracking of Infectious Diseases and Deadly Injuries through Signs Observed in Excavated Human Skeletons of 2000 BC/Iron Age in Iran.

Background: Throughout history, many wars have occurred for various reasons, and many empires and kings have fallen or many people killed by wars. Wars were not always due to the conquest of the country. in the Iron Age, societies were governed by tribes at the head of the tribe, and war was only for to seize property, slaves, and food. Our research area is the same period as the Medes Kingdom, which included the union of small, large tribes, wars between tribes existed in that period, and their signs can be seen on the remains of the people of that period. Methods: Our research is related to human remains from Sagezabad cemetery, Qazvin plain, which dates back to 2000 BC (Iron Age 2 and 3) in Iran. Results: The blows on the remains were very serious and caused death. We have discussed how to kill by "considering the injured body". Conclusion: Our investigation of how people were killed in war based on injury marks and bullet holes in bones, and simulating those injuries to body tissues and organs also, people who had bone cuts from the war and survived and had bone repair and died due to lack of nutrients and infection were also discussed.

An archaeozoological dataset for 3000 years of animal management in the Netherlands.

This paper presents an archaeozoological dataset listing numbers of identified fragments for domestic cattle, sheep/goat, pig and horse from archaeological sites in the Netherlands dating from the Bronze Age to the Early Medieval period (c. 2000 BC - AD 1050) [1]. In addition to fragment numbers per species, the geo-referenced dataset includes chronological information, site descriptions, and bibliographic references. Data were collected from tables listing numbers of bone fragments per animal species as found in published and unpublished reports. Number of identified bone fragments per animal species form the most basic archaeozoological information. They can be used to reconstruct animal husbandry and human dietary practices in the past. The dataset can therefore be used in spatio-temporal studies of animal use and management across c. 3000 years.

A Paleopathological Find on a La Tène Horse Skeleton Discovered in Rescue Archaeological Diggings in the Area of the Olympic Pool, Alba Iulia (CX 143 Pit).

The reconstruction of past life based on archaeozoology is a challenging domain that offers a range of valuable details concerning former human and animal populations. Additionally, the ancient era is a source of information for human and veterinary medicine, as well as for other biological sciences. This report highlights a pathological lesion identified during the investigation of a horse skeleton from a pit dated La Tène in Alba County (Romania). The left scapula with lesions was collected from the skeleton of a buried 7-8-year-old male horse. The aforementioned bone underwent gross, radiological, and computerized tomography evaluation. Macroscopically, a collar of supraarticular cancellous hyperostosis was detected, most likely as a consequence of an invasive chronic phlegmonous periarthritis and/or bursitis of the infraspinate muscle following probably a penetrating cutaneous wound in the shoulder region. A suppurative periarthritis\bursitis of the infraspinate muscle situated nearby caused, apparently, supraglenoidian periosteitis responsible for osteophytes and exostoses formation in the neck region of the scapula.