Transcriptomic profiling of adding cobalt chloride to improve dendrobine-type total alkaloid production.

Trichoderma longibrachiatum UN32 is known for its efficient production of dendrobine-type total alkaloids (DTTAs). This study aimed to determine the optimal medium composition for the UN32 strain using response surface methodology. Key factors, including glucose, beef extract, and CoCl2, were selected through the Plackett-Burman design. Subsequently, a factorial optimization approach was employed using the steepest ascent design, and 17 trial sets were completed via the Box-Behnken design. The optimal medium composition was found to consist of 29.4 g/L of glucose, 17.3 g/L of beef extract, and 0.28 mmol/L of CoCl2. This optimized medium resulted in an impressive 80.8% increase in mycelial dry weight (reaching 12.303 g/L) and a substantial 76.4% boost in DTTA production (reaching 541.63 ± 46.95 µg). Furthermore, the fermentation process was scaled up to a 5-L bioreactor, leading to a DTTA production approximately 1.95 times than the control. Transcriptome analysis of strain UN32 in response to CoCl2 supplementation revealed significant changes in the expression of critical genes associated with the TCA cycle and L-valine, L-leucine, and L-isoleucine biosynthesis changed. These alterations resulted in a heightened influx of acetyl-CoA into DTTA production. Additionally, the expression of genes related to antioxidant enzymes was modified to maintain homeostasis of reactive oxygen species (ROS). A potential mechanism for the accumulation of DTTAs based on ROS as a signal transduction was proposed. These findings provide valuable insights into the regulatory mechanisms of DTTA biosynthesis, potentially offering a method to enhance the production of secondary metabolites in the UN32 strain. KEY POINTS: • After the RSM optimization, there is a substantial increase of 80.8% in biomass production and a significant 76.4% rise in DTTA production. • Transcriptome analysis revealed that the inclusion of CoCl2 supplements resulted in an enhanced influx of acetyl-CoA. • Proposed a mechanism for the accumulation of DTTAs for the role of ROS as a signal transduction pathway.

Multiple lysine substitutions in the peptaibol trichogin GA IV enhance the antibiotic activity against plant pathogenic Pseudomonas syringae.

Plant diseases caused by Pseudomonas syringae are essentially controlled in the field with the use of copper-based products and antibiotics, raising environmental and safety concerns. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) derived from fungi may represent a sustainable alternative to those chemicals. Trichogin GA IV, a non-ribosomal, 11-residue long AMP naturally produced by the fungus Trichoderma longibrachiatum has the ability to insert into phospholipidic membranes and form water-filled pores, thereby perturbing membrane integrity and permeability. In previous studies, peptide analogs modified at the level of specific residues were designed to be water-soluble and active against plant pathogens. Here, we studied the role of glycine-to-lysine substitutions and of the presence of a C-terminal leucine amide on bioactivity against Pseudomonas syringae bacteria. P. syringae diseases affect a wide range of crops worldwide, including tomato and kiwifruit. Our results show that trichogin GA IV analogs containing two or three Gly-to-Lys substitutions are highly effective in vitro against P. syringae pv. tomato (Pst), displaying minimal inhibitory and minimal bactericidal concentrations in the low micromolar range. The same analogs are also able to inhibit in vitro the kiwifruit pathogen P. syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa) biovar 3. When sprayed on tomato plants 24 h before Pst inoculation, only tri-lysine containing analogs were able to significantly reduce bacterial titers and symptom development in infected plants. Our results point to a positive correlation between the number of lysine substitutions and the antibacterial activity. This correlation was supported by microscopy analyses performed with mono-, di- and tri-Lys containing analogs that showed a different degree of interaction with Pst cells and ultrastructural changes that culminated in cell lysis.

Cobalt stress enhanced dendrobine-type total alkaloids biosynthesis of Trichoderma longibrachiatum UN32 through reactive oxygen species formation.

Trichoderma longibrachiatum UN32 is a well-documented mutant strain known to produce dendrobine-type total alkaloids (DTTAs). It was serendipitously observed that the addition of Co2+ to the medium resulted in a notable enhancement in DTTAs production in the T. longibrachiatum UN32 strain, accompanied by an upregulating effect on the expression of antioxidase-related genes. Hence, the objective of the present work was to ascertain whether ROS (intracellular levels of hydrogen peroxide) induced by Co2+ treatment has a beneficial or detrimental impact on DTTAs biosynthesis. A comparison of the intracellular levels of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and DTTAs treated with CoCl2 and CH3COOH revealed that CoCl2 was the optimal inducer for investigating the relationship between ROS formation and DTTAs production. This was due to the observation that ROS formation was reduced by approximately 4% and DTTAs production was increased by 12.55% in comparison to the CH3COOH treatment. The physiological results revealed that the introduction of Co2+ resulted in the oxidative damage and activation of the expression of intracellular superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD). Furthermore, it was confirmed that ROS induced by Co2+ was beneficial to DTTAs production by adding exogenous ROS scavengers. The inclusion of all ROS scavengers, including vitamin C, tocopherol, melatonin, mannitol, and sesamol, resulted in a reduction in ROS accumulation and a concomitant decrease in DTTAs production. Specifically, the addition of melatonin at a concentration of 0.4 mg/L demonstrated significant effects, resulting in a 32.53% (P < 0.01) decrease in ROS accumulation and a 45.22% (P < 0.01) reduction in DTTAs production. Subsequently, the timelines of accumulation of intracellular H2O2 and DTTAs content indicated that ROS are also crucial for normal fermentation without CoCl2 addition. Specifically, the proper H2O2 dose for DTTAs accumulation is between 8.82 and 18.86 µmol/g. The present study offers the initial experimental evidence indicating that CoCl2 enhance DTTAs production during the culture of T. longibrachiatum UN32 via leading an increase in intracellular ROS, which is conductive to DTTAs production and can be inhibited by the ROS scavengers. Our results provide insights into the mechanistic study of DTTAs biosynthesis.

Trichoderma longibrachiatum and thermothelomyces thermophilus co-culture: improvement the saccharification profile of different sugarcane bagasse varieties.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the present work was to perform the co-culture between Trichoderma longibrachiatum LMBC 172, a mesophilic fungus, with Thermothelomyces thermophilus LMBC 162, a thermophilic fungus, by submerged fermentation in a bioreactor. RESULTS: There was an increase in protein production, reaching the value of 35.60 ± 3.76 µg/ml at 72 h. An increase in the amount of proteins of 27.5% in relation to the isolated cultivation of T. longibrachiatum and 19.7% in comparison when T. thermophilus was isolated and cultivated. After that, the saccharification profile of three varieties of sugarcane (sugarcane in natura, culms of sugarcane SP80-3280, and culms of Energy cane) submitted in two pretreatments (autohydrolysis and chemical) was performed. The (e) chemical pretreatment was the better in generating of fermentable sugars from sugarcane bagasse and culms of Energy cane, while with the autohydrolysis pretreatment was obtained the better values to culms of SP80-3280 sugarcane. The sugars found were glucose, xylose, arabinose, and cellobiose. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the co-culture between these microorganisms has the potential to produce an enzymatic cocktail with high performance in the hydrolysis of materials from the sugar-alcohol industry.

Sesquiterpene and Sorbicillinoid Glycosides from the Endophytic Fungus Trichoderma longibrachiatum EN-586 Derived from the Marine Red Alga Laurencia obtusa.

An unusual sesquiterpene glycoside trichoacorside A (1) and two novel sorbicillinoid glycosides sorbicillisides A (2) and B (3), together with a known compound sorbicillin (4), were isolated and identified from the culture extract of an endophytic fungus Trichoderma longibrachiatum EN-586, obtained from the marine red alga Laurencia obtusa. Trichoacorside A (1) is the first representative of a glucosamine-coupled acorane-type sesquiterpenoid. Their structures were elucidated based on detailed interpretation of NMR and mass spectroscopic data. The absolute configurations were determined by X-ray crystallographic analysis, chemical derivatization, and DP4+ probability analysis. The antimicrobial activities of compounds 1-4 against several human, aquatic, and plant pathogens were evaluated.

Longibrachiamide A, a 20-Residue Peptaibol Isolated from Trichoderma longibrachiatum Rifai DMG-3-1-1.

Longibrachiamide A (1), a new 20-residue peptaibol, along with three known ones (2-4), were isolated from the fungus Trichoderma longibrachiatum Rifai DMG-3-1-1, isolated from a mushroom Clitocybe nebularis (Batsch) P. Kumm, which was collected from coniferous forest of northeast China in our previous work. The structure of longibrachiamide A (1) was determined by its NMR and ESI-MS/MS data, the absolute configuration of 1 was further determined by Marfey's analyses. And the complete NMR data of 2-4 were also reported for the first time. The similar CD spectra of 1-4 showed that they all had mixed 310 -/α-helical conformations. Compounds 1-4 showed strong cytotoxicities against BV2, A549 and MCF-7 cells, and also showed moderate inhibitory effects against the tested Gram-positive bacteria, including MRSA T144 and VRE-10.

Eleven-Residue Peptaibols Isolated from Trichoderma longibrachiatum Rifai DMG-3-1-1and Their Structure-Activity Relationship.

Total 23 eleven-residue peptaibols, including five reported ones (1-5) in our previous work, were isolated from the fungus Trichoderma longibrachiatum Rifai DMG-3-1-1, which was obtained from the mushroom Clitocybe nebularis (Batsch) P. Kumm. The structures of the 13 new peptaibols (6-10 and 12-19) were determined by their NMR and MALDI-MS/MS data, their absolute structures were further determined by Marfey's analyses and their ECD data. Careful comparison of the structures of 1-23 showed that only seven residues varied including the 2nd (Gln2 /Asn2 ), 3rd (Ile3 /Val3 ), 4th (Ile4 /Val4 ), 6th (Pro6 /Hyp6 ), 8th (Leu8 /Val8 ), 10th (Pro10 /Hyp10 ) and 11th (Leuol11 /Ileol11 /Valol11 ) residues. Comparison of the IC50 s against the three tested cell lines of 1-23 indicated that 2nd, 3rd and 4th amino acid residues affected their cytotoxicities powerfully. Compounds 2, 5, 9, 11, 21 and 22 showed moderate antibacterial activities against Staphylococcus aureus MRSA T144, which also showed stronger cytotoxicities against BV2 and MCF-7 cells.

Metabolites of Trichoderma longibrachiatum EF5 inhibits soil borne pathogen, Macrophomina phaseolina by triggering amino sugar metabolism.

An endophytic fungal antagonist Trichoderma longibrachiatum EF5 exhibited biocontrol activity against a soil-borne fungal pathogen Macrophomina phaseolina. Under dual co-culture, T. longibrachiatum EF5 showed 58% inhibition against M. phaseolina. Crude soluble metabolites (SMs) extracted from EF5 exhibited biocontrol activity (61%), which is more significant than the cell-free extract. Dual culture of both T. longibrachiatum EF5 and M. phaseolina displayed entangled mycelial structures and retarded hyphal growth. The metabolites responsible for antibiosis and pathogenic activity profiled through GC-MS revealed a total of 131 SMs from axenic culture and upon the interaction of T. longibrachiatum EF5 and M. phaseolina. Interestingly, potential plant-growth-promoting and antimicrobial compounds such as 1- pentanol, 1-hexanol, myristonyl pantothenate, bisabolol, d-Alanine, and diethyl trisulphide were unique with T. longibrachiatum EF5. Few compounds that were not observed or produced minimally under axenic culture were increased during their interaction (e.g., 1,6-anhydro-á-d-Glucopyranose and 5-heptyl dihydro-2(3H)-Furanone), suggesting antimicrobial action against the pathogen. This study also unraveled the induction of amino sugar metabolism when T. longibrachiatum EF5 interacts with M. phaseolina, which is responsible for colonization and counterfeiting the pathogen. Hence T. longibrachiatum EF5 could be a potential biocontrol agent employed for defense priming and plant growth promotion.

Longibramides A-E, Peptaibols Isolated from a Mushroom Derived Fungus Trichoderma longibrachiatum Rifai DMG-3-1-1.

Five new peptaibols, longibramides A-E (1-5) with 11 amino acid residues, were isolated from a fungus Trichoderma longibrachiatum Rifai DMG-3-1-1, which was isolated from a mushroom Clitocybe nebularis (Batsch) P. Kumm collected from coniferous forest in the subboreal area of northeast China. The structures of longibramides A-E were determined by their spectroscopic data (NMR and MS-MS spectra), their absolute configurations were determined by X-ray diffractions and Marfey's analyses. The X-ray diffractions of longibramides A, B, and the similar CD spectra of A-E showed that they all had α-helix conformations. Longibramides B and E showed moderate cytotoxicities against BV2 and MCF-7 cells and also showed some inhibitory effects against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSA T144. L-trans-Hyp was not commonly found in natural peptaibols, which was the 6th or 10th amino acid residue in longibramides C-E. The X-ray diffractions of longibramides A and B afforded the accuracy conformations of their secondary structures, which maybe help to interpret the structure-activity relationships of the family of peptaibols in the future.

Application of laser capture microdissection and polymerase chain reaction in the diagnosis of Trichoderma longibrachiatum infection: a promising diagnostic tool for 'fungal contaminants' infection.

Although Trichoderma species are usually considered to be culture contaminants, an increasing number of case reports have demonstrated their pathogenicity. Current diagnostic tools, including fungal culture, radiology, histopathology, and direct microscopy examination, are often unable to differentiate the pathogenicity of 'fungal contaminants' such as Trichoderma species in patients. Accurate diagnostic tools for 'fungal contaminants' infection have become the urgent needs. To that end, we applicated laser capture microdissection (LCM) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to confirm T. longibrachiatum infection for the first time. A 57-year-old man presented with a cough and hemoptysis lasting for more than 40 days. Computed tomography scan revealed a mass at the left hilum. In addition to pulmonary spindle cell carcinoma, fungal hyphae were also detected in histopathological examination. The cultured fungus was identified as T. longibrachiatum using molecular procedures. The results from DNA sequencing of DNA obtained by LCM revealed the identical result. Antifungal susceptibility testing revealed resistance to itraconazole, fluconazole and flucytosine. The patient was managed with oral voriconazole for 4 months. No relapse of Trichoderma infection was observed at a year follow-up visit. Although there are potential disadvantages, LCM-based molecular biology technology is a promising diagnostic tool for 'fungal contaminants' infection.

Involvement of jasmonic acid, ethylene and salicylic acid signaling pathways behind the systemic resistance induced by Trichoderma longibrachiatum H9 in cucumber.

BACKGROUND: Trichoderma spp. are effective biocontrol agents for many plant pathogens, thus the mechanism of Trichoderma-induced plant resistance is not fully understood. In this study, a novel Trichoderma strain was identified, which could promote plant growth and reduce the disease index of gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea in cucumber. To assess the impact of Trichoderma inoculation on the plant response, a multi-omics approach was performed in the Trichoderma-inoculated cucumber plants through the analyses of the plant transcriptome, proteome, and phytohormone content. RESULTS: A novel Trichoderma strain was identified by morphological and molecular analysis, here named T. longibrachiatum H9. Inoculation of T. longibrachiatum H9 to cucumber roots promoted plant growth in terms of root length, plant height, and fresh weight. Root colonization of T. longibrachiatum H9 in the outer layer of epidermis significantly inhibited the foliar pathogen B. cinerea infection in cucumber. The plant transcriptome and proteome analyses indicated that a large number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified in cucumber plants 96 h post T. longibrachiatum H9 inoculation. Up-regulated DEGs and DEPs were mainly associated with defense/stress processes, secondary metabolism, and phytohormone synthesis and signaling, including jasmonic acid (JA), ethylene (ET) and salicylic acid (SA), in the T. longibrachiatum H9-inoculated cucumber plants in comparison to untreated plants. Moreover, the JA and SA contents significantly increased in cucumber plants with T. longibrachiatum H9 inoculation. CONCLUSIONS: Application of T. longibrachiatum H9 to the roots of cucumber plants effectively promoted plant growth and significantly reduced the disease index of gray mold caused by B. cinerea. The analyses of the plant transcriptome, proteome and phytohormone content demonstrated that T. longibrachiatum H9 mediated plant systemic resistance to B. cinerea challenge through the activation of signaling pathways associated with the phytohormones JA/ET and SA in cucumber.

Enhancing peptaibols production in the biocontrol fungus Trichoderma longibrachiatum SMF2 by elimination of a putative glucose sensor.

Trichoderma spp. are main producers of peptide antibiotics known as peptaibols. While peptaibols have been shown to possess a range of biological activities, molecular understanding of the regulation of their production is largely unclear, which hampers the production improvement through genetic engineering. Here, we demonstrated that the orthologue of glucose sensors in the outstanding biocontrol fungus Trichoderma longibrachiatum SMF2, TlSTP1, participates in the regulation of peptaibols production. Deletion of Tlstp1 markedly impaired hyphal growth and conidiation, but significantly increased peptaibols yield by 5-fold for Trichokonins A and 2.6-fold for Trichokonins B. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analyses showed that the increased peptaibols production occurs at the transcriptional levels of the two nonribosomal peptide synthetase encoding genes, tlx1 and tlx2. Transcriptome analyses of the wild type and the Tlstp1 mutant strains indicated that TlSTP1 exerts a regulatory effect on a set of genes that are involved in a number of metabolic and cellular processes, including synthesis of several other secondary metabolites. These results suggest an important role of TlSTP1 in the regulation of vegetative growth and peptaibols production in T. longibrachiatum SMF2 and provide insights into construction of peptaibol-hyperproducing strains through genetic engineering.

Antifungal and antiproliferative activities of endophytic fungi isolated from the leaves of Markhamia tomentosa.

CONTEXT: Plants harbor endophytes with potential bioactivity. Markhamia tomentosa (Benth) K. Schum ex. Engl. (Bignoniaceae) is reported to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities. OBJECTIVE: The antifungal and antiproliferative properties of endophytic fungi extracts and fractions from M. tomentosa were evaluated. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Endophytic fungi were isolated from the leaves of M. tomentosa and identified by ITS-rDNA sequence analysis. The antagonistic effect of the fungal strains was investigated against pathogenic fungi viz, Fusarium oxysporum, Sclerotinia sclerotiorium, Rhizoctonia solani, and Botrytis cinerea using the dual culture assay for 5-7 days. Antiproliferative effect of the fungal extracts and fractions (3.91-250 µg/mL) on HeLa cancer cell line was tested and IC50 was calculated. Poisoning food assay and antifeedant activity against the pathogenic fungi and Spodoptera litura larvae, for 7 days and 2 h, respectively, was also tested at concentrations of 250, 500 and 1000 µg/mL. RESULTS: Fungal endophytes Trichoderma longibrachiatum and Syncephalastrum racemosum were isolated from the leaves of M. tomentosa. Isolated endophytic fungal strains and solvent extracts showed MIC value of 1000 µg/mL against tested pathogenic fungi in the dual culture and poisoning food assays. Methanol fraction of S. racemosum isolate showed the most effective antiproliferative activity with IC50 of 43.56 µg/mL. Minimal feeding deterrent activity against S. litura larvae was also observed. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: These findings showed that the leaves of Markhamia tomentosa harbor strains of endophytic fungi with promising health benefits, and suggest their antifungal and antiproliferative effects against pathogenic fungi and HeLa cancer cell line.

Identification and Biological Activities of Long-Chain Peptaibols Produced by a Marine-Derived Strain of Trichoderma longibrachiatum.

Six long-chain peptaibols, 1 - 6, were identified from agar cultures of a marine-derived Trichoderma longibrachiatum Rifai strain (MMS151) isolated from blue mussels. The structure elucidation was carried out using electrospray ionization ion trap mass spectrometry (ESI-IT-MS) and GC/EI-MS. The long-chain peptaibols exhibited the general building scheme Ac-Aib-Ala-Aib-Ala-Aib-XXX-Gln-Aib-Vxx-Aib-Gly-XXX-Aib-Pro-Vxx-Aib-XXX-Gln-Gln-Pheol and were similar or identical to recurrent 20-residue peptaibols produced by Trichoderma spp. Three new sequences were identified and were called longibrachins A-0, A-II-a, and A-IV-b. The isolated peptaibols were assayed for cytotoxic, antibacterial, and antifungal activities, and acute toxicity on Dipteran larvae.

First Case of Trichoderma longibrachiatum CIED (Cardiac Implantable Electronic Device)-Associated Endocarditis in a Non-immunocompromised Host: Biofilm Removal and Diagnostic Problems in the Light of the Current Literature.

BACKGROUND: Trichoderma species are saprophytic filamentous fungi producing localized and invasive infections that are cause of morbidity and mortality, especially in immunocompromised patients, causing up to 53% mortality. Non-immunocompromised patients, undergoing continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis, are other targets of this fungus. Current molecular diagnostic tools, based on the barcode marker ITS, fail to discriminate these fungi at the species level, further increasing the difficulty associated with these infections and their generally poor prognosis. CASE REPORT: We report on the first case of endocarditis infection caused by Trichoderma longibrachiatum in a 30-year-old man. This patient underwent the implantation of an implantable cardioverter defibrillator in 2006, replaced in 2012. Two years later, the patient developed fever, treated successfully with amoxicillin followed by ciprofloxacin, but an echocardiogram showed large vegetation onto the ventricular lead. After CIED extraction, the patient had high-grade fever. The culturing of the catheter tip was positive only in samples deriving from sonication according to the 2014 ESCMID guidelines, whereas the simple washing failed to remove the biofilm cells from the plastic surface. Subsequent molecular (ITS sequencing) and microbiological (macromorphology) analyses showed that the vegetation was due to T. longibrachiatum. CONCLUSIONS: This report showed that T. longibrachiatum is an effective threat and that sonication is necessary for the culturing of vegetations from plastic surfaces. Limitations of the current barcode marker ITS, and the long procedures required by a multistep approach, call for the development of rapid monophasic tests.

Entomopathogenic potential of Trichoderma longibrachiatum and its comparative evaluation with malathion against the insect pest Leucinodes orbonalis.

The widespread use of chemical pesticides in agriculture has led to the pollution of environmental systems and has caused various health disorders in animals and humans. Biological pest control is one of the most environmentally friendly methods in modern agriscience. Such methods protect crops from pests and do not pollute the environment. A strain of Trichoderma longibrachiatum was isolated and identified from the soil environment of the North 24 Parganas District, eastern India. A spore suspension of this fungus was used to treat Leucinodes orbonalis, one of the major pests of brinjal (eggplant, Solanum melongena). In an in vitro system, fungal antagonism was determined by median lethal dose (LD50) and median lethal time (LT50) tests against insect larvae. The LD50 and LT50 of T. longibrachiatum were 2.87 × 10(7) spores ml(-1) and 11.7 days, respectively. T. longibrachiatum was formulated into a biopesticide, and its performance was evaluated in brinjal field trials in 2012 and 2013. In the field trials, brinjal treated with three spray applications of T. longibrachiatum (10(8) spores/ml) at 15-day intervals showed a 56.02 % higher crop yield than that of the control. This treatment showed similar efficacy to that of the pesticide malathion in the field trials. The results of this study indicate that this formulation may replace malathion to control the insect pest L. orbonalis in brinjal crops. This is the first report of the entomopathogenic property of T. longibrachiatum and its evaluation against an insect pest in field trials.

Genome sequencing and de novo assembly of Trichoderma longibrachiatum isolate collected from Florida agricultural soils.

We report a draft genome assembly of Trichoderma longibrachiatum isolate GEV 3550, obtained from Florida, United States of America.

Synergistic Effect of Two Peptaibols from Biocontrol Fungus Trichoderma longibrachiatum Strain 40418 on CO-Induced Plant Resistance.

Trichoderma longibrachiatum is a filamentous fungus used as a biological control agent against different plant diseases. The multifunctional secondary metabolites synthesized by Trichoderma, called peptaibols, have emerged as key elicitors in plant innate immunity. This study obtained a high-quality genome sequence for the T. longibrachiatum strain 40418 and identified two peptaibol biosynthetic gene clusters using knockout techniques. The two gene cluster products were confirmed as trilongin AIV a (11-residue) and trilongin BI (20-residue) using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Further investigations revealed that these peptaibols induce plant resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato (Pst) DC3000 infection while triggering plant immunity and cell death. Notably, the two peptaibols exhibit synergistic effects in plant-microbe signaling interactions, with trilongin BI having a predominant role. Moreover, the induction of tomato resistance against Meloidogyne incognita showed similarly promising results.

Invasive Trichoderma longibrachiatum infection in a neutropaenic patient.

Invasive fungal infection is a life-threatening complication of chemotherapy and neutropaenia in the haematology population. Trichoderma species rarely cause human disease but have been reported to cause invasive infection in the immunosuppressed. We present a case of invasive Trichoderma longibrachiatum pulmonary infection with fatal outcome in a neutropaenic patient with acute myeloid leukaemia. 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Antifungal mechanism of nanosilver biosynthesized with Trichoderma longibrachiatum and its potential to control muskmelon Fusarium wilt.

Fusarium oxysporum (Schl.) f.sp. melonis, which causes muskmelon wilt disease, is a destructive filamentous fungal pathogen, attracting more attention to the search for effective fungicides against this pathogen. In particular, Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have strong antimicrobial properties and they are not easy to develop drug resistance, which provides new ideas for the prevention and control of muskmelon Fusarium wilt (MFW). This paper studied the effects of AgNPs on the growth and development of muskmelon, the control efficacy on Fusarium wilt of muskmelon and the antifungal mechanism of AgNPs to F. oxysporum. The results showed that AgNPs could inhibit the growth of F. oxysporum on the PDA and in the PDB medium at 100-200 mg/L and the low concentration of 25 mg/L AgNPs could promote the seed germination and growth of muskmelon seedlings and reduce the incidence of muskmelon Fusarium wilt. Further studies on the antifungal mechanism showed that AgNPs could impair the development, damage cell structure, and interrupt cellular metabolism pathways of this fungus. TEM observation revealed that AgNPs treatment led to damage to the cell wall and membrane and accumulation of vacuoles and vessels, causing the leakage of intracellular contents. AgNPs treatment significantly hampered the growth of mycelia in the PDB medium, even causing a decrease in biomass. Biochemical properties showed that AgNPs treatment stimulated the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in 6 h, subsequently producing malondialdehyde (MDA) and increasing protective enzyme activity. After 6 h, the protective enzyme activity decreased. These results indicated that AgNPs destroy the cell structure and affect the metabolisms, eventually leading to the death of fungus.