Cataglyphis meets Drosophila.

In Cataglyphis and Drosophila - in desert ants and fruit flies - research on visually guided behavior took different paths. While work in Cataglyphis started in the field and covered the animal's wide navigational repertoire, in Drosophila the initial focus was on a particular kind of visual control behavior scrutinized within the confines of the laboratory arena, before research concentrated on more advanced behaviors. In recent times, these multi-pronged approaches in flies and ants increasingly converge, both conceptually and methodologically, and thus lay the ground for combined neuroethological efforts. In spite of the obvious differences in the behavioral repertoire of these two groups of insects, likely commonalities in the navigational processes and underlying neuronal circuitries are increasingly coming to the fore.

Troy D. Zars: a personal tribute to a scientist, colleague, and friend.

I knew Troy for nearly 15 years, and in that time I don't recall hearing any childhood stories like those in seemingly every personal statement I've read from aspiring scientists or medical students. No stories about hours spent gazing at an anthill. I don't recall hearing about shelves crowded with insects collected on Styrofoam, or animal skulls kept in a shoebox under his bed. If these collected crania existed, it was more likely because Troy was a crack shot with a pellet gun than a need to know adaptations in the dentition of local squirrel populations. I don't recall hearing about science projects taken to the Iowa State Capitol to share with politely interested legislators. But I do recall hearing about spending the entirety of the daylight hours in the summer, with his brother Doug, finding where the crappie were biting. About crystal clear water on a lake in Minnesota that you didn't quite need to know the exact location of, just in case you were thinking of going and plundering the walleye within. I definitely heard about triumphs as a starting lineman not only for his high school football team, but the mighty Norse of Luther College. I heard about summer warehouse jobs in sweltering Iowa Julys. And I saw, firsthand, love and commitment and family. Troy's story demonstrates that the finest scientists are not just cultivated in narrow STEM curricula that begin at age 5. They are just as likely to be football-playing fishermen, fathers, husbands, and friends who can navigate an operant conditioning paradigm during the week, and dance a polka and produce a magnificent smoked pork shoulder on Saturday. Nature and an independent spirit and a little bit of mischief is a different kind of Magnet school. And it gave us truly one of the best.

A biographical sketch of Troy D. Zars (1967-2018).

Troy D. Zars (1967-2018) was an American biologist. He studied the relationships between genes, neuronal circuits and behavior in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Zars co-pioneered the use of transgene expression to locally restore gene function in memory-defective fly mutants, an approach that provided breakthrough insights into the localization of memory traces in the fly brain. With ensuing refinements of the methods of transgene expression and the broadening in the range of transgenes to be expressed, this shaped the field of modern behavioral neurogenetics.

Memory, anticipation, action - working with Troy D. Zars.

We present here our reflections on the scientific work of the late Troy D. Zars (1967 - 2018), on what it was like to work with him, and what it means to us. A common theme running through his work is that memory systems are not for replaying the past. Rather, they are forward-looking systems, providing whatever guidance past experience has to offer for anticipating the outcome of future actions. And in situations where no such guidance is available trying things out is the best option. Working with Troy was inspiring precisely because of the optimism inherent in this concept and that he himself embodied. Our reflections highlight what this means to us as his former mentors, colleagues, and mentees, respectively, and what it might mean for the future of neurogenetics.

Nogo receptor complex expression dynamics in the inflammatory foci of central nervous system experimental autoimmune demyelination.

BACKGROUND: Nogo-A and its putative receptor NgR are considered to be among the inhibitors of axonal regeneration in the CNS. However, few studies so far have addressed the issue of local NgR complex multilateral localization within inflammation in an MS mouse model of autoimmune demyelination. METHODS: Chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) was induced in C57BL/6 mice. Analyses were performed on acute (days 18-22) and chronic (day 50) time points and compared to controls. The temporal and spatial expression of the Nogo receptor complex (NgR and coreceptors) was studied at the spinal cord using epifluorescent and confocal microscopy or real-time PCR. Data are expressed as cells/mm2, as mean % ± SEM, or as arbitrary units of integrated density. RESULTS: Animals developed a moderate to severe EAE without mortality, followed by a progressive, chronic clinical course. NgR complex spatial expression varied during the main time points of EAE. NgR with coreceptors LINGO-1 and TROY was increased in the spinal cord in the acute phase whereas LINGO-1 and p75 signal seemed to be dominant in the chronic phase, respectively. NgR was detected on gray matter NeuN+ neurons of the spinal cord, within the white matter inflammatory foci (14.2 ± 4.3 % NgR+ inflammatory cells), and found to be colocalized with GAP-43+ axonal growth cones while no ß-TubIII+, SMI-32+, or APP+ axons were found as NgR+. Among the NgR+ inflammatory cells, 75.6 ± 9.0 % were microglial/macrophages (lectin+), 49.6 ± 14.2 % expressed CD68 (phagocytic ED1+ cells), and no cells were Mac-3+. Of these macrophages/monocytes, only Arginase-1+/NgR+ but not iNOS+/NgR+ were present in lesions both in acute and chronic phases. CONCLUSIONS: Our data describe in detail the expression of the Nogo receptor complex within the autoimmune inflammatory foci and suggest a possible immune action for NgR apart from the established inhibitory one on axonal growth. Its expression by inflammatory macrophages/monocytes could signify a possible role of these cells on axonal guidance and clearance of the lesioned area during inflammatory demyelination.

Propentofylline inhibits glioblastoma cell invasion and survival by targeting the TROY signaling pathway.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary tumor of the CNS and carries a dismal prognosis. The aggressive invasion of GBM cells into the surrounding normal brain makes complete resection impossible, significantly increases resistance to the standard therapy regimen, and virtually assures tumor recurrence. Median survival for newly diagnosed GBM is 14.6 months and declines to 8 months for patients with recurrent GBM. New therapeutic strategies that target the molecular drivers of invasion are required for improved clinical outcome. We have demonstrated that TROY (TNFRSF19), a member of the TNFR super-family, plays an important role in GBM invasion and resistance. Knockdown of TROY expression inhibits GBM cell invasion, increases sensitivity to temozolomide, and prolongs survival in an intracranial xenograft model. Propentofylline (PPF), an atypical synthetic methylxanthine compound, has been extensively studied in Phase II and Phase III clinical trials for Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia where it has demonstrated blood-brain permeability and minimal adverse side effects. Here we showed that PPF decreased GBM cell expression of TROY, inhibited glioma cell invasion, and sensitized GBM cells to TMZ. Mechanistically, PPF decreased glioma cell invasion by modulating TROY expression and downstream signaling, including AKT, NF-κB, and Rac1 activation. Thus, PPF may provide a pharmacologic approach to target TROY, inhibit cell invasion, and reduce therapeutic resistance in GBM.

Clonal Evolution of Stem Cells in the Gastrointestinal Tract.

The field of gastrointestinal epithelial stem cells is a rapidly developing area of adult stem cell research. The discovery of Lgr5(+) intestinal stem cells has enabled us to study many hidden aspects of the biology of gastrointestinal adult stem cells. Marked by Lgr5 and Troy, several novel endodermal stem cells have been identified in the gastrointestinal tract. A precise working model of stem cell propagation, dynamics, and plasticity has been revealed by a genetic labeling method, termed lineage tracing. This chapter introduces the reidentification of crypt base columnar cells as Lgr5(+) stem cells in the intestine. Subsequently, it will discuss dynamic clonal evolution and cellular plasticity in the intestinal stem cell zone, as well as in stem cell zones of stomach glands.

ß-catenin regulates NF-κB activity via TNFRSF19 in colorectal cancer cells.

Wnt/ß-catenin signaling plays a crucial role in the regulation of colon tissue regeneration and the development of colon tumors. Under physiological conditions, ß-catenin activity is tightly controlled. However, the majority of sporadic forms of colorectal cancer are characterized by inactivation of the tumor suppressor gene APC due to loss of heterozygosity (LOH), resulting in deregulation of the protein ß-catenin. Apart from known ß-catenin target genes like MYC, OPG, and DKK4, the gene TNFRSF19, a member of the TNF receptor superfamily, is regulated by ß-catenin in mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC). We found that TNFRSF19 is frequently overexpressed in colorectal cancer cell lines and primary colorectal carcinomas. Further characterization revealed that both isoforms of TNFRSF19, TNFRSF19.1 and TNFRSF19.2, are regulated in a ß-catenin dependent manner. The transcript TNFRSF19.2 encodes a 417 amino acid long protein containing a TRAF-binding site that links the TNFRSF19.2 to NF-κB signaling, whereas the isoform TNFRSF19.1 lacks this TRAF-binding site. Nevertheless both isoform 1 and 2 induced the activity of an NF-κB reporter gene. NF-κB signaling is important for inflammatory processes and chronic inflammatory diseases like ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, which are associated with increased risk for developing colorectal cancer. The observation that TNFRSF19 is a ß-catenin target gene and TNFRSF19 receptor molecules activate NF-κB signaling shows that ß-catenin regulates NF-κB activity via TNFRSF19, suggesting that TNFRSF19 may contribute to the development of colorectal tumors with deregulated ß-catenin activity.

Defining the contribution of Troy-positive progenitor cells to the mouse esophageal epithelium.

Progenitor cells adapt their behavior in response to tissue demands. However, the molecular mechanisms controlling esophageal progenitor decisions remain largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate the presence of a Troy (Tnfrsf19)-expressing progenitor subpopulation localized to defined regions along the mouse esophageal axis. Lineage tracing and mathematical modeling demonstrate that Troy-positive progenitor cells are prone to undergoing symmetrical fate choices and contribute to esophageal tissue homeostasis long term. Functionally, TROY inhibits progenitor proliferation and enables commitment to differentiation without affecting fate symmetry. Whereas Troy expression is stable during esophageal homeostasis, progenitor cells downregulate Troy in response to tissue stress, enabling proliferative expansion of basal cells refractory to differentiation and reestablishment of tissue homeostasis. Our results demonstrate functional, spatially restricted progenitor heterogeneity in the esophageal epithelium and identify how dynamic regulation of Troy coordinates tissue generation.

Virchow and Troy.

The Trojan war occupies an important place in Greek mythology. Homer describes this in detail in his epic works of "The Iliad" and "The Odyssey." The ancient town of Troy is located south of the Dardanelles Strait in Turkey. Until the late nineteenth century, scientists thought that the Trojan War was a legend. German businessman and amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) began excavations in Troy. The Turkish Empire (Ottoman Empire) granted excavation permission in 1871 on the condition that the artifacts discovered would be preserved and exhibited. Schliemann found "the treasure of the Trojan king Priam" in 1873. He smuggled the treasure to Athens. In 1874, the Ottoman government discovered this and went after the treasure. They sued Schliemann in Athens. According to archaeologists, the treasure dates back to 2600-2400 BC. The horde that Schliemann found could not have belonged to the Trojan King Priam. It was during this time that Schliemann met Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902). Virchow was interested in anthropology and prehistory. The Turkish state granted Schliemann new permission to conduct excavations. Virchow stayed in Troy for a month in 1879 as an excavation site physician. He provided health care services to the excavation workers and local people and made observations. Virchow came to Troy once again in March 1890 to attend the second Trojan conference organized by Schliemann. Virchow was also an influential politician in Berlin. He was a member of the Berlin City Council. Thanks to the relations established with Chancellor Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm, Virchow ensured that the Treasure of Priam would be permanently transferred to Berlin from London (it is currently at the Victoria and Albert Museum), where it was temporarily exhibited. Trojan treasures were exhibited in the Ethnological Museum (Völkerkundemuseum) and in the Martin-Gropius Bau (formerly Kunstgewerbemuseum -The Decorative Arts Museum) until 1945. After the Soviet Army entered Berlin following the Second World War, the treasure was lost. It was discovered in 1994 that the treasure was at the Pushkin Museum.

Long noncoding RNA SNHG8 promotes chemoresistance in gastric cancer via binding with hnRNPA1 and stabilizing TROY expression.

AIMS: To determine SNHG8's function and potential mechanisms in gastric cancer (GC) chemoresistance. METHODS: We assessed SNHG8 expression in GC cell lines, GC/CDDP cell lines (cell lines treated with cisplatin), and 42 GC tissues and SNHG8 levels in the lncRNA microarray analysis of AGS/CDDP and AGS cell lines. We also examined GC cell viability in vivo and in vitro and its apoptosis level with Flow cytometry assays. SNHG8 was localized in subcells using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and cell fraction assays, hnRNPA1's link to SNHG8 was determined utilizing RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) and FISH assays, gene expression profiles were assessed employing RNA transcriptome sequencing, and hnRNPA1's relationship with TROY was ascertained with the RIP assay. RESULTS: SNHG8 increased significantly in GC cell lines and GC tissues. However, a decrease in its expression promoted sensitivity to chemotherapy and inhibited DNA damage repair in vitro and in vivo. SNHG8 appeared to regulate TROY expression via linking with hnRNPA1. Reducing TROY levels considerably stimulated GC cell chemosensitivity, whereas heightening them partially rescued the rate of chemoresistance caused by downregulating SNHG8. CONCLUSION: In summary, the "SNHG8/hnRNPA1-TROY" axis is crucial to GC chemoresistance.

TROY Modulates Cancer Stem-Like Cell Properties and Gefitinib Resistance Through EMT Signaling in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer.

Targeted therapy has made breakthrough progress in the treatment of advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) in the last 20 years. Despite that, acquired resistance of epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI) is an urgent clinical problem. Our study established an acquired gefitinib-resistant cell line, which exhibited epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and stem cell-like properties. Transcriptional sequencing and bioinformatics analysis revealed that TROY was significantly increased in gefitinib-resistant cells. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) showed EMT was the core enriched hallmark in the resistant cells. TROY siRNA interference could overcome the gefitinib resistance with the downregulated expression of EMT and CSC markers. In addition, immunohistochemistry indicated that TROY was overexpressed in tumor samples from patients who acquired resistance to first-generation EGFR-TKI without T790M mutation and the expression of TROY was associated with poor prognosis in LUAD. Here, we provided the potential role of TROY in the resistance of targeted therapy and a new strategy to overcome the acquired resistance to EGFR-TKI in NSCLC.

p57Kip2 imposes the reserve stem cell state of gastric chief cells.

Adult stem cells constantly react to local changes to ensure tissue homeostasis. In the main body of the stomach, chief cells produce digestive enzymes; however, upon injury, they undergo rapid proliferation for prompt tissue regeneration. Here, we identified p57Kip2 (p57) as a molecular switch for the reserve stem cell state of chief cells in mice. During homeostasis, p57 is constantly expressed in chief cells but rapidly diminishes after injury, followed by robust proliferation. Both single-cell RNA sequencing and dox-induced lineage tracing confirmed the sequential loss of p57 and activation of proliferation within the chief cell lineage. In corpus organoids, p57 overexpression induced a long-term reserve stem cell state, accompanied by altered niche requirements and a mature chief cell/secretory phenotype. Following the constitutive expression of p57 in vivo, chief cells showed an impaired injury response. Thus, p57 is a gatekeeper that imposes the reserve stem cell state of chief cells in homeostasis.

Troy/Tnfrsf19 marks epidermal cells that govern interfollicular epidermal renewal and cornification.

The skin epidermis is a highly compartmentalized tissue consisting of a cornifying epithelium called the interfollicular epidermis (IFE) and associated hair follicles (HFs). Several stem cell populations have been described that mark specific compartments in the skin but none of them is specific to the IFE. Here, we identify Troy as a marker of IFE and HF infundibulum basal layer cells in developing and adult human and mouse epidermis. Genetic lineage-tracing experiments demonstrate that Troy-expressing basal cells contribute to long-term renewal of all layers of the cornifying epithelium. Single-cell transcriptomics and organoid assays of Troy-expressing cells, as well as their progeny, confirmed stem cell identity as well as the ability to generate differentiating daughter cells. In conclusion, we define Troy as a marker of epidermal basal cells that govern interfollicular epidermal renewal and cornification.

TROY signals through JAK1-STAT3 to promote glioblastoma cell migration and resistance.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain tumor in adults and carries a discouraging prognosis. Its aggressive and highly infiltrative nature renders the current standard treatment of maximal surgical resection, radiation, and chemotherapy relatively ineffective. Identifying the signaling pathways that regulate GBM migration/invasion and resistance is required to develop more effective therapeutic regimens to treat GBM. Expression of TROY, an orphan receptor of the TNF receptor superfamily, increases with glial tumor grade, inversely correlates with patient overall survival, stimulates GBM cell invasion in vitro and in vivo, and increases resistance to temozolomide and radiation therapy. Conversely, silencing TROY expression inhibits GBM cell invasion, increases sensitivity to temozolomide, and prolongs survival in a preclinical intracranial xenograft model. Here, we have identified for the first time that TROY interacts with JAK1. Increased TROY expression increases JAK1 phosphorylation. In addition, increased TROY expression promotes STAT3 phosphorylation and STAT3 transcriptional activity that is dependent upon JAK1. TROY-mediated activation of STAT3 is independent of its ability to stimulate activity of NF-κB. Inhibition of JAK1 activity by ruxolitinib or knockdown of JAK1 expression by siRNA significantly inhibits TROY-induced STAT3 activation, GBM cell migration, and decreases resistance to temozolomide. Taken together, our data indicate that the TROY signaling complex may represent a potential therapeutic target with the distinctive capacity to exert effects on multiple pathways mediating GBM cell invasion and resistance.

TROY expression is associated with pathological stage and poor prognosis in patients treated with radical cystectomy.

BACKGROUND: New biomarkers may help us provide individualized prognosis and allow risk-stratified clinical decision making about radical treatment. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to determine the tumor necrosis factor of receptor superfamily 19 (TROY) expression in urothelial carcinoma and its relationship to clinicopathological findings. METHODS: Immunohistochemical staining for TROY was carried out in 136 archival radical cystectomy specimens with immunoreactivity being stratified on a 0-9 scale. Expression scores for TROY were further stratified into negative (score 0) and positive (score 1 or greater). Median age was 65 years, and the median follow-up period was 50.7 months. RESULTS: Expression of TROY was significantly associated with the pathological stage (p= 0.019) and expression of nestin (p= 0.013). Log-rank tests indicated that expression of TROY was significantly associated with disease progression and cancer-specific mortality (p= 0.044 and 0.008, respectively). In multivariate Cox regression analysis, lymph node status was the only independent prognostic factor for disease progression and cancer-specific survival. Expression of TROY was a marginal prognostic factor for cancer-specific survival. CONCLUSIONS: TROY may therefore be a new molecular marker to aid in identifying and selecting patients undergoing radical cystectomy who could potentially benefit from multimodal treatment.

Defining the Identity and Dynamics of Adult Gastric Isthmus Stem Cells.

The gastric corpus epithelium is the thickest part of the gastrointestinal tract and is rapidly turned over. Several markers have been proposed for gastric corpus stem cells in both isthmus and base regions. However, the identity of isthmus stem cells (IsthSCs) and the interaction between distinct stem cell populations is still under debate. Here, based on unbiased genetic labeling and biophysical modeling, we show that corpus glands are compartmentalized into two independent zones, with slow-cycling stem cells maintaining the base and actively cycling stem cells maintaining the pit-isthmus-neck region through a process of "punctuated" neutral drift dynamics. Independent lineage tracing based on Stmn1 and Ki67 expression confirmed that rapidly cycling IsthSCs maintain the pit-isthmus-neck region. Finally, single-cell RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis is used to define the molecular identity and lineage relationship of a single, cycling, IsthSC population. These observations define the identity and functional behavior of IsthSCs.

A Nogo-Like Signaling Perspective from Birth to Adulthood and in Old Age: Brain Expression Patterns of Ligands, Receptors and Modulators.

An appropriate strength of Nogo-like signaling is important to maintain synaptic homeostasis in the CNS. Disturbances have been associated with schizophrenia, MS and other diseases. Blocking Nogo-like signaling may improve recovery after spinal cord injury, stroke and traumatic brain injury. To understand the interacting roles of an increasing number of ligands, receptors and modulators engaged in Nogo-like signaling, the transcriptional activity of these genes in the same brain areas from birth to old age in the normal brain is needed. Thus, we have quantitatively mapped the innate expression of 11 important genes engaged in Nogo-like signaling. Using in situ hybridization, we located and measured the amount of mRNA encoding Nogo-A, OMgp, NgR1, NgR2, NgR3, Lingo-1, Troy, Olfactomedin, LgI1, ADAM22, and MAG, in 18 different brain areas at six different ages (P0, 1, 2, 4, 14, and 104 weeks). We show gene- and area-specific activities and how the genes undergo dynamic regulation during postnatal development and become stable during adulthood. Hippocampal areas underwent the largest changes over time. We only found differences between individual cortical areas in Troy and MAG. Subcortical areas presented the largest inter-regional differences; lateral and basolateral amygdala had markedly higher expression than other subcortical areas. The widespread differences and unique expression patterns of the different genes involved in Nogo-like signaling suggest that the functional complexes could look vastly different in different areas.

p75NTR and TROY: Uncharted Roles of Nogo Receptor Complex in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), have been on the forefront of drug discovery for most of the myelin inhibitory molecules implicated in axonal regenerative process. Nogo-A along with its putative receptor NgR and co-receptor LINGO-1 has paved the way for the production of pharmaceutical agents such as monoclonal antibodies, which are already put into handful of clinical trials. On the other side, little progress has been made towards clarifying the role of neurotrophin receptor p75 (p75NTR) and TROY in disease progression, other key players of the Nogo receptor complex. Previous work of our lab has shown that their exact location and type of expression is harmonized in a phase-dependent manner. Here, in this review, we outline their façade in normal and diseased central nervous system (CNS) and suggest a role for p75NTR in chronic axonal regeneration whereas TROY in acute inflammation of EAE intercourse.

The Nogo Receptor Ligand LGI1 Regulates Synapse Number and Synaptic Activity in Hippocampal and Cortical Neurons.

Leucine-rich glioma-inactivated protein 1 (LGI1) is a secreted neuronal protein and a Nogo receptor 1 (NgR1) ligand. Mutations in LGI1 in humans causes autosomal dominant lateral temporal lobe epilepsy and homozygous deletion of LGI1 in mice results in severe epileptic seizures that cause early postnatal death. NgR1 plays an important role in the development of CNS synapses and circuitry by limiting plasticity in the adult cortex via the activation of RhoA. These relationships and functions prompted us to examine the effect of LGI1 on synapse formation in vitro and in vivo. We report that application of LGI1 increases synaptic density in neuronal culture and that LGI1 null hippocampus has fewer dendritic mushroom spines than in wild-type (WT) littermates. Further, our electrophysiological investigations demonstrate that LGI1 null hippocampal neurons possess fewer and weaker synapses. RhoA activity is significantly increased in cortical cultures derived from LGI1 null mice and using a reconstituted system; we show directly that LGI1 antagonizes NgR1-tumor necrosis factor receptor orphan Y (TROY) signaling. Our data suggests that LGI1 enhances synapse formation in cortical and hippocampal neurons by reducing NgR1 signaling.