The Mitochondrial Unfolded Protein Response Is Mediated Cell-Non-autonomously by Retromer-Dependent Wnt Signaling.

The mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt) can be triggered in a cell-non-autonomous fashion across multiple tissues in response to mitochondrial dysfunction. The ability to communicate information about the presence of mitochondrial stress enables a global response that can ultimately better protect an organism from local mitochondrial challenges. We find that animals use retromer-dependent Wnt signaling to propagate mitochondrial stress signals from the nervous system to peripheral tissues. Specifically, the polyQ40-triggered activation of mitochondrial stress or reduction of cco-1 (complex IV subunit) in neurons of C. elegans results in the Wnt-dependent induction of cell-non-autonomous UPRmt in peripheral cells. Loss-of-function mutations of retromer complex components that are responsible for recycling the Wnt secretion-factor/MIG-14 prevent Wnt secretion and thereby suppress cell-non-autonomous UPRmt. Neuronal expression of the Wnt ligand/EGL-20 is sufficient to induce cell-non-autonomous UPRmt in a retromer complex-, Wnt signaling-, and serotonin-dependent manner, clearly implicating Wnt signaling as a strong candidate for the "mitokine" signal.

SWIP mediates retromer-independent membrane recruitment of the WASH complex.

The pentameric WASH complex facilitates endosomal protein sorting by activating Arp2/3, which in turn leads to the formation of F-actin patches specifically on the endosomal surface. It is generally accepted that WASH complex attaches to the endosomal membrane via the interaction of its subunit FAM21 with the retromer subunit VPS35. However, we observe the WASH complex and F-actin present on endosomes even in the absence of VPS35. We show that the WASH complex binds to the endosomal surface in both a retromer-dependent and a retromer-independent manner. The retromer-independent membrane anchor is directly mediated by the subunit SWIP. Furthermore, SWIP can interact with a number of phosphoinositide species. Of those, our data suggest that the interaction with phosphatidylinositol-3,5-bisphosphate (PI(3,5)P2 ) is crucial to the endosomal binding of SWIP. Overall, this study reveals a new role of the WASH complex subunit SWIP and highlights the WASH complex as an independent, self-sufficient trafficking regulator.

The impact of VPS35 D620N mutation on alternative autophagy and its reversal by estrogen in Parkinson's disease.

VPS35 plays a key role in neurodegenerative processes in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease (PD). Many genetic studies have shown a close relationship between autophagy and PD pathophysiology, and specifically, the PD-causing D620N mutation in VPS35 has been shown to impair autophagy. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying neuronal cell death and impaired autophagy in PD are debated. Notably, increasing evidence suggests that Rab9-dependent "alternative" autophagy, which is driven by a different molecular mechanism that driving ATG5-dependent "conventional" autophagy, also contributes to neurodegenerative process. In this study, we investigated the relationship between alternative autophagy and VPS35 D620N mutant-related PD pathogenesis. We isolated iPSCs from the blood mononuclear cell population of two PD patients carrying the VPS35 D620N mutant. In addition, we used CRISPR-Cas9 to generate SH-SY5Y cells carrying the D620N variant of VPS35. We first revealed that the number of autophagic vacuoles was significantly decreased in ATG5-knockout Mouse Embryonic Fibroblast or ATG5-knockdown patient-derived dopaminergic neurons carrying the VPS35 D620N mutant compared with that of the wild type VPS35 control cells. Furthermore, estrogen, which activates alternative autophagy pathways, increased the number of autophagic vacuoles in ATG5-knockdown VPS35 D620N mutant dopaminergic neurons. Estrogen induces Rab9 phosphorylation, mediated through Ulk1 phosphorylation, ultimately regulating alternative autophagy. Moreover, estrogen reduced the apoptosis rate of VPS35 D620N neurons, and this effect of estrogen was diminished under alternative autophagy knockdown conditions. In conclusion, alternative autophagy might be important for maintaining neuronal homeostasis and may be associated with the neuroprotective effect of estrogen in PD with VPS35 D620N.

The Parkinson's disease related mutant VPS35 (D620N) amplifies the LRRK2 response to endolysosomal stress.

The identification of multiple genes linked to Parkinson's disease (PD) invites the question as to how they may co-operate. We have generated isogenic cell lines that inducibly express either wild-type or a mutant form of the retromer component VPS35 (D620N), which has been linked to PD. This has enabled us to test proposed effects of this mutation in a setting where the relative expression reflects the physiological occurrence. We confirm that this mutation compromises VPS35 association with the WASH complex, but find no defect in WASH recruitment to endosomes, nor in the distribution of lysosomal receptors, cation-independent mannose-6-phosphate receptor and Sortilin. We show VPS35 (D620N) enhances the activity of the Parkinson's associated kinase LRRK2 towards RAB12 under basal conditions. Furthermore, VPS35 (D620N) amplifies the LRRK2 response to endolysosomal stress resulting in enhanced phosphorylation of RABs 10 and 12. By comparing different types of endolysosomal stresses such as the ionophore nigericin and the membranolytic agent l-leucyl-l-leucine methyl ester, we are able to dissociate phospho-RAB accumulation from membrane rupture.

The retromer complex regulates C. elegans development and mammalian ciliogenesis.

The mammalian retromer consists of subunits VPS26 (either VPS26A or VPS26B), VPS29 and VPS35, and a loosely associated sorting nexin (SNX) heterodimer or a variety of other SNX proteins. Despite involvement in yeast and mammalian cell trafficking, the role of retromer in development is poorly understood, and its impact on primary ciliogenesis remains unknown. Using CRISPR/Cas9 editing, we demonstrate that vps-26-knockout worms have reduced brood sizes, impaired vulval development and decreased body length, all of which have been linked to ciliogenesis defects. Although preliminary studies did not identify worm ciliary defects, and impaired development limited additional ciliogenesis studies, we turned to mammalian cells to investigate the role of retromer in ciliogenesis. VPS35 localized to the primary cilium of mammalian cells, and depletion of VPS26, VPS35, VPS29, SNX1, SNX2, SNX5 or SNX27 led to decreased ciliogenesis. Retromer also coimmunoprecipitated with the centriolar protein, CP110 (also known as CCP110), and was required for its removal from the mother centriole. Herein, we characterize new roles for retromer in C. elegans development and in the regulation of ciliogenesis in mammalian cells, suggesting a novel role for retromer in CP110 removal from the mother centriole.

Porcine deltacoronavirus accessory protein NS6 harnesses VPS35-mediated retrograde trafficking to facilitate efficient viral infection.

IMPORTANCE: Retrograde transport has been reported to be closely associated with normal cellular biological processes and viral replication. As an emerging enteropathogenic coronavirus with zoonotic potential, porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV) has attracted considerable attention. However, whether retrograde transport is associated with PDCoV infection remains unclear. Our present study demonstrates that retromer protein VPS35 acts as a critical host factor that is required for PDCoV infection. Mechanically, VPS35 interacts with PDCoV NS6, mediating the retrograde transport of NS6 from endosomes to the Golgi and preventing it from lysosomal degradation. Recombinant PDCoVs with an NS6 deletion display resistance to VPS35 deficiency. Our work reveals a novel evasion mechanism of PDCoV that involves the manipulation of the retrograde transport pathway by VPS35, providing new insight into the mechanism of PDCoV infection.

Vacuolar protein sorting 35 (VPS35) acts as a tumor promoter via facilitating cell cycle progression in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is insidious and highly malignant with extremely poor prognosis and drug resistance to current chemotherapies. Therefore, there is a critical need to investigate the molecular mechanism underlying PDAC progression to develop promising diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. In parallel, vacuolar protein sorting (VPS) proteins, involved in the sorting, transportation, and localization of membrane proteins, have gradually attracted the attention of researchers in the development of cancers. Although VPS35 has been reported to promote carcinoma progression, the specific molecular mechanism is still unclear. Here, we determined the impact of VPS35 on the tumorigenesis of PDAC and explored the underlying molecular mechanism. We performed a pan-cancer analysis of 46 VPS genes using RNAseq data from GTEx (control) and TCGA (tumor) and predicted potential functions of VPS35 in PDAC by enrichment analysis. Furthermore, cell cloning experiments, gene knockout, cell cycle analysis, immunohistochemistry, and other molecular and biochemical experiments were used to validate the function of VPS35. Consequently, VPS35 was found overexpressed in multiple cancers and correlated with the poor prognosis of PDAC. Meanwhile, we verified that VPS35 could modulate the cell cycle and promote tumor cell growth in PDAC. Collectively, we provide solid evidence that VPS35 facilitates the cell cycle progression as a critical novel target in PDAC clinical therapy.

VPS35 deficiency in the embryonic cortex leads to prenatal cell loss and abnormal development of axonal connectivity.

VPS35 is a core component of the retromer complex involved in familial forms of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. In mice, VPS35 is expressed during early brain development. However, previous studies have reported that VPS35 activity is largely dispensable for normal neuronal development and initial elaboration of axonal projections. Here, we evaluated the role of VPS35 in the mouse embryonic brain using two Cre-driver lines that remove Vps35 from the cortex at different prenatal stages. We found that Vps35 mutant mice displayed microcephaly and decreased cortical thickness from the embryonic stages to adulthood. VPS35 also regulates cortical development by affecting a subpopulation of neural progenitor cells and the survival of postmitotic neurons. In addition, we showed that a lack of VPS35 leads to hypoplasia and misrouting of several axonal projections, including the anterior commissure and fornix. Furthermore, VPS35 deficiency impairs the non-autonomous development of thalamocortical axons (TCAs), which show severe disruption of innervation and terminal arborization in the cortex. Together, these data demonstrate that VPS35 plays a greater role in embryonic development of the mammalian brain than it was previously thought.

Understanding the contributions of VPS35 and the retromer in neurodegenerative disease.

Perturbations of the endolysosomal pathway have been suggested to play an important role in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Specifically, VPS35 and the retromer complex play an important role in the endolysosomal system and are implicated in the pathophysiology of these diseases. A single missense mutation in VPS35, Asp620Asn (D620N), is known to cause late-onset, autosomal dominant familial PD. In this review, we focus on the emerging role of the PD-linked D620N mutation in causing retromer dysfunction and dissect its implications in neurodegeneration. Additionally, we will discuss how VPS35 and the retromer are linked to AD, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and primary tauopathies. Interestingly, reduced levels of VPS35 and other retromer components have been observed in post-mortem brain tissue, suggesting a role for the retromer in the pathophysiology of these diseases. This review will provide a comprehensive dive into the mechanisms of VPS35 dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, we will highlight outstanding questions in the field and the retromer as a therapeutic target for neurodegenerative disease at large.

Acute inactivation of retromer and ESCPE-1 leads to time-resolved defects in endosomal cargo sorting.

Human retromer, a heterotrimer of VPS26 (VPS26A or VPS26B), VPS35 and VPS29, orchestrates the endosomal retrieval of internalised cargo and promotes their cell surface recycling, a prototypical cargo being the glucose transporter GLUT1 (also known as SLC2A1). The role of retromer in the retrograde sorting of the cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor (CI-MPR, also known as IGF2R) from endosomes back to the trans-Golgi network remains controversial. Here, by applying knocksideways technology, we develop a method for acute retromer inactivation. While retromer knocksideways in HeLa and H4 human neuroglioma cells resulted in time-resolved defects in cell surface sorting of GLUT1, we failed to observe a quantifiable defect in CI-MPR sorting. In contrast, knocksideways of the ESCPE-1 complex - a key regulator of retrograde CI-MPR sorting - revealed time-resolved defects in CI-MPR sorting. Together, these data are consistent with a comparatively limited role for retromer in ESCPE-1-mediated CI-MPR retrograde sorting, and establish a methodology for acute retromer and ESCPE-1 inactivation that will aid the time-resolved dissection of their functional roles in endosomal cargo sorting.

Retromer retrieves the Wilson disease protein ATP7B from endolysosomes in a copper-dependent manner.

The Wilson disease protein, ATP7B maintains copper (herein referring to the Cu+ ion) homeostasis in the liver. ATP7B traffics from trans-Golgi network to endolysosomes to export excess copper. Regulation of ATP7B trafficking to and from endolysosomes is not well understood. We investigated the fate of ATP7B after copper export. At high copper levels, ATP7B traffics primarily to acidic, active hydrolase (cathepsin-B)-positive endolysosomes and, upon subsequent copper chelation, returns to the trans-Golgi network (TGN). At high copper, ATP7B colocalizes with endolysosomal markers and with a core member of retromer complex, VPS35. Knocking down VPS35 did not abrogate the copper export function of ATP7B or its copper-responsive anterograde trafficking to vesicles; rather upon subsequent copper chelation, ATP7B failed to relocalize to the TGN, which was rescued by overexpressing wild-type VPS35. Overexpressing mutants of the retromer complex-associated proteins Rab7A and COMMD1 yielded a similar non-recycling phenotype of ATP7B. At high copper, VPS35 and ATP7B are juxtaposed on the same endolysosome and form a large complex that is stabilized by in vivo photoamino acid labeling and UV-crosslinking. We demonstrate that retromer regulates endolysosome to TGN trafficking of copper transporter ATP7B in a manner that is dependent upon intracellular copper.

Microglial VPS35 deficiency impairs Aß phagocytosis and Aß-induced disease-associated microglia, and enhances Aß associated pathology.

BACKGROUND: Vacuolar sorting protein 35 (VPS35), a key component of the retromer, plays an essential role in selectively retrieval of transmembrane proteins from endosomes to trans-Golgi networks. Dysfunctional retromer is a risk factor for neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Microglial VPS35 deficiency is found in AD patients' brain; however, it remains unclear if and how microglial VPS35-loss contributes to AD development. METHODS: We used mice with VPS35 cKO (conditional knockout) in microglial cells in 5XFAD, an AD mouse model. The AD related brain pathology (Aß and glial activation), behavior, and phagocytosis of Aß were accessed by a combination of immunofluorescence staining analyses and neurological behavior tests. RESULTS: A decrease in learning and memory function, but increases in insoluble, fibrillar, and plaques of ß-amyloids (Aß), dystrophic neurites, and reactive astrocytes are observed in microglial VPS35 deficient 5XFAD mice. Further examining microglial phenotype demonstrates necessity of microglial VPS35 in disease-associated microglia (DAM) development and microglial uptake of Aß, revealing a tight association of microglial Aß uptake with DAM development. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these results uncovered a mechanism by which microglial VPS35-deficiency precipitates AD pathology in 5XFAD mice likely by impairing DAM development and DAM mediated Aß uptake and clearance, and thus accelerating the cognition decline.

Diacylglycerol kinase and phospholipase D inhibitors alter the cellular lipidome and endosomal sorting towards the Golgi apparatus.

The membrane lipids diacylglycerol (DAG) and phosphatidic acid (PA) are important second messengers that can regulate membrane transport by recruiting proteins to the membrane and by altering biophysical membrane properties. DAG and PA are involved in the transport from the Golgi apparatus to endosomes, and we have here investigated whether changes in these lipids might be important for regulation of transport to the Golgi using the protein toxin ricin. Modulation of DAG and PA levels using DAG kinase (DGK) and phospholipase D (PLD) inhibitors gave a strong increase in retrograde ricin transport, but had little impact on ricin recycling or degradation. Inhibitor treatment strongly affected the endosome morphology, increasing endosomal tubulation and size. Furthermore, ricin was present in these tubular structures together with proteins known to regulate retrograde transport. Using siRNA to knock down different isoforms of PLD and DGK, we found that several isoforms of PLD and DGK are involved in regulating ricin transport to the Golgi. Finally, by performing lipidomic analysis we found that the DGK inhibitor gave a weak, but expected, increase in DAG levels, while the PLD inhibitor gave a strong and unexpected increase in DAG levels, showing that it is important to perform lipidomic analysis when using inhibitors of lipid metabolism.

Interaction between VPS35 and RABG3f is necessary as a checkpoint to control fusion of late compartments with the vacuole.

Vacuoles are essential organelles in plants, playing crucial roles, such as cellular material degradation, ion and metabolite storage, and turgor maintenance. Vacuoles receive material via the endocytic, secretory, and autophagic pathways. Membrane fusion is the last step during which prevacuolar compartments (PVCs) and autophagosomes fuse with the vacuole membrane (tonoplast) to deliver cargoes. Protein components of the canonical intracellular fusion machinery that are conserved across organisms, including Arabidopsis thaliana, include complexes, such as soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs), that catalyze membrane fusion, and homotypic fusion and vacuole protein sorting (HOPS), that serve as adaptors which tether cargo vesicles to target membranes for fusion under the regulation of RAB-GTPases. The mechanisms regulating the recruitment and assembly of tethering complexes are not well-understood, especially the role of RABs in this dynamic regulation. Here, we report the identification of the small synthetic molecule Endosidin17 (ES17), which interferes with synthetic, endocytic, and autophagic traffic by impairing the fusion of late endosome compartments with the tonoplast. Multiple independent target identification techniques revealed that ES17 targets the VPS35 subunit of the retromer tethering complex, preventing its normal interaction with the Arabidopsis RAB7 homolog RABG3f. ES17 interference with VPS35-RABG3f interaction prevents the retromer complex to endosome anchoring, resulting in retention of RABG3f. Using multiple approaches, we show that VPS35-RABG3f-GTP interaction is necessary to trigger downstream events like HOPS complex assembly and fusion of late compartments with the tonoplast. Overall, our results support a role for the interaction of RABG3f-VPS35 as a checkpoint in the control of traffic toward the vacuole.

Towards a molecular understanding of endosomal trafficking by Retromer and Retriever.

Endosomes are dynamic intracellular compartments that control the sorting of a constant stream of different transmembrane cargos either for ESCRT-mediated degradation or for egress and recycling to compartments such as the Golgi and the plasma membrane. The recycling of cargos occurs within tubulovesicular membrane domains and is facilitated by peripheral membrane protein machineries that control both membrane remodelling and selection of specific transmembrane cargos. One of the primary sorting machineries is the Retromer complex, which controls the recycling of a large array of different cargo molecules in cooperation with various sorting nexin (SNX) adaptor proteins. Recently a Retromer-like complex was also identified that controls plasma membrane recycling of cargos including integrins and lipoprotein receptors. Termed "Retriever," this complex uses a different SNX family member SNX17 for cargo recognition, and cooperates with the COMMD/CCDC93/CCDC22 (CCC) complex to form a larger assembly called "Commander" to mediate endosomal trafficking. In this review we focus on recent advances that have begun to provide a molecular understanding of these two distantly related transport machineries.

Ependymal Vps35 Promotes Ependymal Cell Differentiation and Survival, Suppresses Microglial Activation, and Prevents Neonatal Hydrocephalus.

Hydrocephalus is a pathologic condition associated with various brain diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Dysfunctional ependymal cells (EpCs) are believed to contribute to the development of hydrocephalus. It is thus of interest to investigate EpCs' development and function. Here, we report that vacuolar protein sorting-associated protein 35 (VPS35) is critical for EpC differentiation, ciliogenesis, and survival, and thus preventing neonatal hydrocephalus. VPS35 is abundantly expressed in EpCs. Mice with conditional knock-out (cKO) of Vps35 in embryonic (Vps35GFAP-Cre and Vps35Emx1-Cre) or postnatal (Vps35Foxj1-CreER) EpC progenitors exhibit enlarged lateral ventricles (LVs) and hydrocephalus-like pathology. Further studies reveal marked reductions in EpCs and their cilia in both Vps35GFAP-Cre and Vps35Foxj1-CreER mutant mice. The reduced EpCs appear to be due to impairments in EpC differentiation and survival. Additionally, both Vps35GFAP-Cre and Vps35Foxj1-CreER neonatal pups exhibit increased cell proliferation and death largely in a region close to LV-EpCs. Many microglia close to the mutant LV-EpC region become activated. Depletion of the microglia by PLX3397, an antagonist of colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R), restores LV-EpCs and diminishes the pathology of neonatal hydrocephalus in Vps35Foxj1-CreER mice. Taken together, these observations suggest unrecognized functions of Vps35 in EpC differentiation, ciliogenesis, and survival in neonatal LV, and reveal pathologic roles of locally activated microglia in EpC homeostasis and hydrocephalus development.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This study reports critical functions of vacuolar protein sorting-associated protein 35 (VPS35) not only in promoting ependymal cell (EpC) differentiation, ciliogenesis, and survival, but also in preventing local microglial activation. The dysfunctional EpCs and activated microglia are likely to induce hydrocephalus.

A new functional role of mitochondria-anchored protein ligase in peroxisome morphology in mammalian cells.

Mitochondria and peroxisomes are metabolically interconnected and functionally active subcellular organelles. These two dynamic organelles, share a number of common biochemical functions such as ß-oxidation of fatty acids and detoxification of peroxides. The biogenesis and morphology of both these organelles in the mammalian cells is controlled by common transcription factors like PGC1α, and by a common fission machinery comprising of fission proteins like DRP1, Mff, and hFis1, respectively. In addition, the outer membrane mitochondria-anchored protein ligase (MAPL), the first mitochondrial SUMO E3 ligase with a RING-finger domain, also regulates mitochondrial morphology inducing mitochondrial fragmentation upon its overexpression. This fragmentation is dependent on both the RING domain of MAPL and the presence of the mitochondrial fission GTPase dynamin-related protein-1 (DRP1). Earlier studies have demonstrated that mitochondrial-derived vesicles are formed independently of the known mitochondrial fission GTPase, DRP1 are enriched for MAPL and are targeted to peroxisomes. The current study shows that MAPL regulates morphology of peroxisomes in a cell-type specific manner. Fascinatingly, the peroxisome elongation caused either due to silencing of DRP1 or by addition of polyunsaturated fatty acid, docosahexaenoic acid was blocked by overexpressing MAPL in mammalian cell lines. Furthermore, the transfection and colocalisation studies of MAPL with peroxisome membrane marker, PMP70, in different cell lines clearly revealed a cell-type specificity of transport of MAPL to peroxisomes. Previous work has placed the Vps35 (retromer component) as vital for delivery of MAPL to peroxisomes, placing the retromer as critical for the formation of MAPL-positive mitochondrial-derived vesicles. The results of polyethylene glycol-based cell-cell fusion assay signified that the enrichment of MAPL in peroxisomes is through vesicles and a retromer dependent phenomenon. Thus, a novel function for MAPL in peroxisomes is established to regulate peroxisome elongation and morphology under growth conditions and thus possibly modulate peroxisome fission.

Impaired neurogenesis in the hippocampus of an adult VPS35 mutant mouse model of Parkinson's disease through interaction with APP.

Vacuolar protein sorting protein 35 (VPS35) is a core component of the retromer complex involved in regulating protein trafficking and retrieval. Recently, a missense mutation, Asp620Asn (D620N), in VPS35 (PARK17) has been identified as a pathogenic mutation for late-onset autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease (PD). Although PD is characterized by a range of motor symptoms associated with loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantial nigra, non-motor symptoms such as impaired hippocampal neurogenesis were observed in both PD patients and animal models of PD caused by multiple PD-linked pathogenic genes such as alpha-synuclein and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2). However, the role of the VPS35 D620N mutation in adult hippocampal neurogenesis remains unknown. Here, we showed that the VPS35 D620N mutation impaired hippocampal neurogenesis in adult transgenic mice expressing the VPS35 D620N gene. Specifically, we showed a reduction in the neural stem cell pool and neural proliferation and differentiation, retarded migration, and impaired neurite outgrowth in 3-month-old VPS35 D620N mutant mice. Moreover, we found that the VPS35 D620N mutant hyperphosphorylates amyloid precursor protein (APP) at Thr668and interacts with APP. Notably, by crossing the VPS35 D620N mutant mice with APP knockout (KO) mice, we showed that loss of APP function rescues VPS35 D620N-inhibited neurogenesis, neural migration, and maturation. Our study provides important evidence that APP is involved in the VPS35 D620N mutation in regulating adult neurogenesis, which sheds light on the pathogenic mechanisms in PD.

An update on cellular and molecular determinants of Parkinson's disease with emphasis on the role of the retromer complex.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a highly prevalent neurodegenerative condition. The disease involves the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons located in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Among late-onset, familial forms of Parkinson are cases with mutations in the PARK17 locus encoding the vacuolar protein sorting 35 (Vps35), a subunit of the retromer complex. The retromer complex is composed of a heterotrimeric protein core (Vps26-Vps35-Vps29). The best-known role of retromer is the retrieval of cargoes from endosomes to the Golgi complex or the plasma membrane. However, recent literature indicates that retromer performs roles associated with lysosomal and mitochondrial functions and degradative pathways such as autophagy. A common point mutation affecting the retromer subunit Vps35 is D620N, which has been linked to the alterations in the aforementioned cellular processes as well as with neurodegeneration. Here, we review the main aspects of the malfunction of the retromer complex and its implications for PD pathology. Besides, we highlight several controversies still awaiting clarification.

A novel autophagy-related genes prognostic risk model and validation of autophagy-related oncogene VPS35 in breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Accumulating evidence implies that autophagy plays a critical role in breast cancer development and progression. It is crucial to screen out autophagy-related encoding genes (ARGs) with prognostic value in breast cancer and reveal their biological properties in the aggressiveness of breast cancer. METHODS: Univariate and multivariate Cox proportional hazards analyses were used to identify a prognostic risk model of ARGs from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). Kaplan-Meier analysis, univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis were performed to validate the risk model. Western blot and immunohistochemistry (IHC) were conducted to assess the expression of VPS35 (one of ARGs in risk model). CCK8, Colony formation assay, Transwell migration/invasion assays and autophagy flux assay were used to confirm biological function of VPS35 in breast cancer. RESULTS: In this study, the prognostic risk model consisting of six ARGs (VPS35, TRIM21, PRKAB2, RUFY4, MAP1LC3A and LARP1) in breast cancer were identified. The risk model was further verified as a novel independent prognostic factor for breast cancer patients. We also clarified that vacuolar protein sorting-associated protein 35 (VPS35), one of ARGs in the risk model, was upregulated in breast cancer samples and cell lines. VPS35 overexpression was correlated with more aggressive phenotype of breast cancer and indicated worse prognosis in both progression-free survival and overall survival analyses. Meanwhile, VPS35 knockdown inhibited breast cancer cell proliferation, migration and invasion, suggesting that VPS35 promoted the progression of breast cancer. VPS35 silence also influenced autophagy process, indicating that VPS35 was essential for autophagy completion. CONCLUSION: Taken together, the six ARGs risk model has a remarkably prognostic value for breast cancer. Among them, VPS35 might exert as a significant oncogenic and prognostic factor for breast cancer and could be a promising autophagy-related therapeutic target in clinical practice.