Four glycosyltransferase genes are responsible for synthesis and accumulation of different flavonol glycosides in apple tissues.

Flavonols are widely synthesized throughout the plant kingdom, playing essential roles in plant physiology and providing unique health benefits for humans. Their glycosylation plays significant role in improving their stability and solubility, thus their accumulation and function. However, the genes encoding the enzymes catalyze this glycosylation remain largely unknown in apple. This study utilized a combination of methods to identify genes encoding such enzymes. Initially, candidate genes were selected based on their potential to encode UDP-dependent glycosyltransferases (UGTs) and their expression patterns in response to light induction. Subsequently, through testing the in vitro enzyme activity of the proteins produced in Escherichia coli cells, four candidates were confirmed to encode a flavonol 3-O-galactosyltransferase (UGT78T6), flavonol 3-O-glucosyltransferase (UGT78S1), flavonol 3-O-xylosyltransferase/arabinosyltransferase (UGT78T5), and flavonol 3-O-rhamnosyltransferase (UGT76AE22), respectively. Further validation of these genes' functions was conducted by modulating their expression levels in stably transformed apple plants. As anticipated, a positive correlation was observed between the expression levels of these genes and the content of specific flavonol glycosides corresponding to each gene. Moreover, overexpression of a flavonol synthase gene, MdFLS, resulted in increased flavonol glycoside content in apple roots and leaves. These findings provide valuable insights for breeding programs aimed at enriching apple flesh with flavonols and for identifying flavonol 3-O-glycosyltransferases of other plant species.

MdWER interacts with MdERF109 and MdJAZ2 to mediate methyl jasmonate- and light-induced anthocyanin biosynthesis in apple fruit.

Anthocyanin generation in apples (Malus domestica) and the pigmentation that results from it may be caused by irradiation and through administration of methyl jasmonate (MeJA). However, their regulatory interrelationships associated with fruit coloration are not well defined. To determine whether MdERF109, a transcription factor (TF) involved in light-mediated coloration and anthocyanin biosynthesis, has synergistic effects with other proteins, we performed a yeast two-hybrid assessment and identified another TF, MdWER. MdWER was induced by MeJA treatment, and although overexpression of MdWER alone did not promote anthocyanin accumulation co-overexpression with MdERF109 resulted in significantly increase in anthocyanin biosynthesis. MdWER may form a protein complex with MdERF109 to promote anthocyanin accumulation by enhancing combinations between the proteins and their corresponding genes. In addition, MdWER, as a MeJA responsive protein, interacts with the anthocyanin repressor MdJAZ2. Transient co-expression in apple fruit and protein interaction assays allowed us to conclude that MdERF109 and MdJAZ2 interact with MdWER and take part in the production of anthocyanins upon MeJA treatment and irradiation. Our findings validate a role for the MdERF109-MdWER-MdJAZ2 module in anthocyanin biosynthesis and uncover a novel mechanism for how light and MeJA signals are coordinated anthocyanin biosynthesis in apple fruit.

Bacillus B2 promotes root growth and enhances phosphorus absorption in apple rootstocks by affecting MhMYB15.

Due to the chelation of phosphorus in the soil, it becomes unavailable for plant growth and development. The mechanisms by which phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria activate immobilized phosphorus to promote the growth and development of woody plants, as well as the intrinsic molecular mechanisms, are not clear. Through the analysis of microbial communities in the rhizosphere 16S V3-V4 and a homologous gene encoding microbial alkaline phosphomonoesterase (phoD) in phosphate-efficient (PE) and phosphate-inefficient apple rootstocks, it was found that PE significantly enriched beneficial rhizobacteria. The best phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria, Bacillus sp. strain 7DB1 (B2), was isolated, purified, and identified from the rhizosphere soil of PE rootstocks. Incubating with Bacillus B2 into the rhizosphere of apple rootstocks significantly increased the soluble phosphorus and flavonoid content in the rhizosphere soil. Simultaneously, this process stimulates the root development of the rootstocks and enhances plant phosphorus uptake. After root transcriptome sequencing, candidate transcription factor MhMYB15, responsive to Bacillus B2, was identified through heatmap and co-expression network analysis. Yeast one-hybrid, electrophoretic mobility shift assay, and LUC assay confirmed that MhMYB15 can directly bind to the promoter regions of downstream functional genes, including chalcone synthase MhCHS2 and phosphate transporter MhPHT1;15. Transgenic experiments with MhMYB15 revealed that RNAi-MhMYB15 silenced lines failed to induce an increase in flavonoid content and phosphorus levels in the roots under the treatment of Bacillus B2, and plant growth was slower than the control. In conclusion, MhMYB15 actively responds to Bacillus B2, regulating the accumulation of flavonoids and the uptake of phosphorus, thereby influencing plant growth and development.

The BTB-BACK-TAZ domain protein MdBT2 reduces drought resistance by weakening the positive regulatory effect of MdHDZ27 on apple drought tolerance via ubiquitination.

Drought stress is one of the dominating challenges to the growth and productivity in crop plants. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms of plants responses to drought stress is fundamental to improve fruit quality. However, such molecular mechanisms are poorly understood in apple (Malus domestica Borkh.). In this study, we explored that the BTB-BACK-TAZ protein, MdBT2, negatively modulates the drought tolerance of apple plantlets. Moreover, we identified a novel Homeodomain-leucine zipper (HD-Zip) transcription factor, MdHDZ27, using a yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) screen with MdBT2 as the bait. Overexpression of MdHDZ27 in apple plantlets, calli, and tomato plantlets enhanced their drought tolerance by promoting the expression of drought tolerance-related genes [responsive to dehydration 29A (MdRD29A) and MdRD29B]. Biochemical analyses demonstrated that MdHDZ27 directly binds to and activates the promoters of MdRD29A and MdRD29B. Furthermore, in vitro and in vivo assays indicate that MdBT2 interacts with and ubiquitinates MdHDZ27, via the ubiquitin/26S proteasome pathway. This ubiquitination results in the degradation of MdHDZ27 and weakens the transcriptional activation of MdHDZ27 on MdRD29A and MdRD29B. Finally, a series of transgenic analyses in apple plantlets further clarified the role of the relationship between MdBT2 and MdHDZ27, as well as the effect of their interaction on drought resistance in apple plantlets. Collectively, our findings reveal a novel mechanism by which the MdBT2-MdHDZ27 regulatory module controls drought tolerance, which is of great significance for enhancing the drought resistance of apple and other plants.

The Ca2+-MdCRF4-MdWRKY9 module negatively affects apple fruit watercore formation by suppressing the transcription of MdSOT2.

Watercore is a common physiological disease of Rosaceae plants, such as apples (Malus domestica), usually occurring during fruit ripening. Apple fruit with watercore symptoms is prone to browning and rotting, thus losing commercial viability. Sorbitol and calcium ions are considered key factors affecting watercore occurrence in apples. However, the mechanism by which they affect the occurrence of watercore remains unclear. Here, we identified that the transcription factor MdWRKY9 directly binds to the promoter of MdSOT2, positively regulates the transcription of MdSOT2, increases sorbitol content in fruit, and promotes watercore occurrence. Additionally, MdCRF4 can directly bind to MdWRKY9 and MdSOT2 promoters, positively regulating their expression. Since calcium ions can induce the ubiquitination and degradation of the transcription factor MdCRF4, they can inhibit the transcription of MdWRKY9 and MdSOT2 by degrading MdCRF4, thereby reducing the sorbitol content in fruit and inhibiting the occurrence of fruit watercore disease. Our data sheds light on how calcium ions mitigate watercore in fruit, providing molecular-level insights to enhance fruit quality artificially.

MdMYB44-like positively regulates salt and drought tolerance via the MdPYL8-MdPP2CA module in apple.

Abscisic acid (ABA) is involved in salt and drought stress responses, but the underlying molecular mechanism remains unclear. Here, we demonstrated that the overexpression of MdMYB44-like, an R2R3-MYB transcription factor, significantly increases the salt and drought tolerance of transgenic apples and Arabidopsis. MdMYB44-like inhibits the transcription of MdPP2CA, which encodes a type 2C protein phosphatase that acts as a negative regulator in the ABA response, thereby enhancing ABA signaling-mediated salt and drought tolerance. Furthermore, we found that MdMYB44-like and MdPYL8, an ABA receptor, form a protein complex that further enhances the transcriptional inhibition of the MdPP2CA promoter by MdMYB44-like. Significantly, we discovered that MdPP2CA can interfere with the physical association between MdMYB44-like and MdPYL8 in the presence of ABA, partially blocking the inhibitory effect of the MdMYB44-like-MdPYL8 complex on the MdPP2CA promoter. Thus, MdMYB44-like, MdPYL8, and MdPP2CA form a regulatory loop that tightly modulates ABA signaling homeostasis under salt and drought stress. Our data reveal that MdMYB44-like precisely modulates ABA-mediated salt and drought tolerance in apples through the MdPYL8-MdPP2CA module.

Host-induced gene silencing in wild apple germplasm Malus hupehensis confers resistance to the fungal pathogen Botryosphaeria dothidea.

Host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) is an inherent mechanism of plant resistance to fungal pathogens, resulting from cross-kingdom RNA interference (RNAi) mediated by small RNAs (sRNAs) delivered from plants into invading fungi. Introducing artificial sRNA precursors into crops can trigger HIGS of selected fungal genes, and thus has potential applications in agricultural disease control. To investigate the HIGS of apple (Malus sp.) during the interaction with Botryosphaeria dothidea, the pathogenic fungus causing apple ring rot disease, we evaluated whether apple miRNAs can be transported into and target genes in B. dothidea. Indeed, miR159a from Malus hupehensis, a wild apple germplasm with B. dothidea resistance, silenced the fungal sugar transporter gene BdSTP. The accumulation of miR159a in extracellular vesicles (EVs) of both infected M. hupehensis and invading B. dothidea suggests that this miRNA of the host is transported into the fungus via the EV pathway. Knockout of BdSTP caused defects in fungal growth and proliferation, whereas knockin of a miR159a-insensitive version of BdSTP resulted in increased pathogenicity. Inhibition of miR159a in M. hupehensis substantially enhanced plant sensitivity to B. dothidea, indicating miR159a-mediated HIGS against BdSTP being integral to apple immunity. Introducing artificial sRNA precursors targeting BdSTP and BdALS, an acetolactate synthase gene, into M. hupehensis revealed that double-stranded RNAs were more potent than engineered MIRNAs in triggering HIGS alternative to those natural of apple and inhibiting infection. These results provide preliminary evidence for cross-kingdom RNAi in the apple-B. dothidea interaction and establish HIGS as a potential disease control strategy in apple.

Transcriptional factor MdESE3 controls fruit acidity by activating genes regulating malic acid content in apple.

Acidity is a key factor controlling fruit flavor and quality. In a previous study, combined transcriptome and methylation analyses identified a P3A-type ATPase from apple (Malus domestica), MdMa11, which regulates vacuolar pH when expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. In this study, the role of MdMa11 in controlling fruit acidity was verified in apple calli, fruits, and plantlets. In addition, we isolated an AP2 domain-containing transcription factor, designated MdESE3, based on yeast one-hybrid (Y1H) screening using the MdMa11 promoter as bait. A subcellular localization assay indicated that MdESE3 localized to the nucleus. Analyses of transgenic apple calli, fruits, and plantlets, as well as tomatoes, demonstrated that MdESE3 enhances fruit acidity and organic acid accumulation. Meanwhile, chromatin immunoprecipitation quantitative PCR (ChIP-qPCR), luciferase (LUC) transactivation assays, and GUS reporter assays indicated that MdESE3 could bind to the ethylene-responsive element (ERE; 5'-TTTAAAAT-3') upstream of the MdMa11 transcription start site, thereby activating its expression. Furthermore, MdtDT, MdDTC2, and MdMDH12 expression increased in apple fruits and plantlets overexpressing MdESE3 and decreased in apple fruits and plantlets where MdESE3 was silenced. The ERE was found in MdtDT and MdMDH12 promoters, but not in the MdDTC2 promoter. The Y1H, LUC transactivation assays, and GUS reporter assays indicated that MdESE3 could bind to the MdtDT and MdMDH12 promoters and activate their expression. Our findings provide valuable functional validation of MdESE3 and its role in the transcriptional regulation of MdMa11, MdtDT, and MdMDH12 and malic acid accumulation in apple.

DNA methylation variation is crucial to restore adventitious rooting ability during in vitro shoot culture-induced rejuvenation in apple rootstock.

In vitro shoot culture has been widely used for restoring adventitious rooting ability in rooting recalcitrant woody perennial species for the past few decades, but its molecular mechanism is largely uncovered. DNA methylation is an essential epigenetic mark that participates in many biological processes. Recent reports suggested a role of DNA methylation in vitro culture in plants. In this study, we characterized the single-base resolution DNA methylome and transcriptome of adult and in vitro shoot culture-induced rejuvenation cuttings of apple rootstock M9T337. We found a global decrease in DNA methylation during rejuvenation, which may be correlated with increased expression of DNA demethylase genes and decreased expression of DNA methyltransferase genes. We additionally documented DNA hypomethylation in 'T337'_R in gene protomer associated with higher transcript levels of several adventitious rooting-related genes. The application of a DNA methylation inhibitor (5-azacytidine) enhanced the adventitious rooting ability and the expression level of adventitious rooting-related genes, such as, MdANT, MdMPK3, MdABCB21, MdCDC48, MdKIN8B, pri-MdMIR156a5 and pri-MdMIR156a12. Together, the DNA hypomethylation is critical for the rejuvenation-dependent adventitious rooting ability in apple rootstock. In addition, increased DNA methylation was also found in thousands of genes in 'T337'_R. We additionally documented that DNA hypermethylation is required for inhibition of adventitious rooting-repressed genes, such as MdGAD5a, encoding glutamate decarboxylase, which can catalyze glutamate decarboxylated to form γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Our results revealed that in vitro shoot culture-dependent DNA methylation variation plays important roles in adventitious rooting in apple rootstock.

Strigolactone regulates adventitious root formation via the MdSMXL7-MdWRKY6-MdBRC1 signaling cascade in apple.

Propagation through stem cuttings is a popular method worldwide for species such as fruit tree rootstocks and forest trees. Adventitious root (AR) formation from stem cuttings is crucial for effective and successful clonal propagation of apple rootstocks. Strigolactones (SLs) are newly identified hormones involved in AR formation. However, the regulatory mechanisms underpinning this process remain elusive. In the present study, weighted gene co-expression network analysis, as well as rooting assays using stable transgenic apple materials, revealed that MdBRC1 served as a key gene in the inhibition of AR formation by SLs. We have demonstrated that MdSMXL7 and MdWRKY6 synergistically regulated MdBRC1 expression, depending on the interactions of MdSMXL7 and MdWRKY6 at the protein level downstream of SLs as well as the direct promoter binding on MdBRC1 by MdWRKY6. Furthermore, biochemical studies and genetic analysis revealed that MdBRC1 inhibited AR formation by triggering the expression of MdGH3.1 in a transcriptional activation pathway. Finally, the present study not only proposes a component, MdWRKY6, that enables MdSMXL7 to regulate MdBRC1 during the process of SL-controlled AR formation in apple, but also provides prospective target genes to enhance AR formation capacity using CRISPR (i.e. clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) technology, particularly in woody plants.

MdVQ10 promotes wound-triggered leaf senescence in association with MdWRKY75 and undergoes antagonistic modulation of MdCML15 and MdJAZs in apple.

Wounding stress leads to leaf senescence. However, the underlying molecular mechanism has not been elucidated. In this study, we investigated the role of the MdVQ10-MdWRKY75 module in wound-induced leaf senescence. MdWRKY75 was identified as a key positive modulator of wound-induced leaf senescence by activating the expression of the senescence-associated genes MdSAG12 and MdSAG18. MdVQ10 interacted with MdWRKY75 to enhance MdWRKY75-activated transcription of MdSAG12 and MdSAG18, thereby promoting leaf senescence triggered by wounding. In addition, the calmodulin-like protein MdCML15 promoted MdVQ10-mediated leaf senescence by stimulating the interaction between MdVQ10 and MdWRKY75. Moreover, the jasmonic acid signaling repressors MdJAZ12 and MdJAZ14 antagonized MdVQ10-mediated leaf senescence by weakening the MdVQ10-MdWRKY75 interaction. Our results demonstrate that the MdVQ10-MdWRKY75 module is a key modulator of wound-induced leaf senescence and provides insights into the mechanism of leaf senescence caused by wounding.

MdMYB305-MdbHLH33-MdMYB10 regulates sugar and anthocyanin balance in red-fleshed apple fruits.

Sugar and anthocyanin are important indicators of fruit quality, and understanding the mechanism underlying their accumulation is essential for breeding high-quality fruit. We identified an R2R3-MYB transcription factor MdMYB305 in the red-fleshed apple progeny, which was positively correlated with fruit sugar content but negatively correlated with anthocyanin content. Transient injection, stable expression [overexpressing and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9)], and heterologous transformation of tomato confirmed that MdMYB305 promotes the accumulation of sugar and inhibits the synthesis of anthocyanin. A series of molecular experiments (such as electrophoretic mobility shift and luciferase assays) confirmed that MdMYB305 combines with sugar-related genes (MdCWI1/MdVGT3/MdTMT2) and anthocyanin-related genes (MdF3H/MdDFR/MdUFGT), promoting and inhibiting their activities, and finally regulating the sugar and anthocyanin content of fruits. In addition, the study also found that MdMYB305 competes with MdMYB10 for the MdbHLH33 binding site to balance sugar and anthocyanin accumulation in the fruits, which provides a reference value for exploring more functions of the MYB-bHLH-MYB complex and the balance relationship between sugar and anthocyanin in the future.

Mdm-miR160-MdARF17-MdWRKY33 module mediates freezing tolerance in apple.

Apple (Malus domestica) trees are vulnerable to freezing temperatures. Cold resistance in woody perennial plants can be improved through biotechnological approaches. However, genetic engineering requires a thorough understanding of the molecular mechanisms of the tree's response to cold. In this study, we demonstrated that the Mdm-miR160-MdARF17-MdWRKY33 module is crucial for apple freezing tolerance. Mdm-miR160 plays a negative role in apple freezing tolerance, whereas MdARF17, one of the targets of Mdm-miR160, is a positive regulator of apple freezing tolerance. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that in apple, MdARF17 mediates the cold response by influencing the expression of cold-responsive genes. EMSA and ChIP-qPCR assays demonstrated that MdARF17 can bind to the promoter of MdWRKY33 and promotes its expression. Overexpression of MdWRKY33 enhanced the cold tolerance of the apple calli. In addition, we found that the Mdm-miR160-MdARF17-MdWRKY33 module regulates cold tolerance in apple by regulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging, as revealed by (i) increased H2 O2 levels and decreased peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) activities in Mdm-miR160e OE plants and MdARF17 RNAi plants and (ii) decreased H2 O2 levels and increased POD and CAT activities in MdmARF17 OE plants and MdWRKY33 OE calli. Taken together, our study uncovered the molecular roles of the Mdm-miR160-MdARF17-MdWRKY33 module in freezing tolerance in apple, thus providing support for breeding of cold-tolerant apple cultivars.

Mdm-miR858 targets MdMYB9 and MdMYBPA1 to participate anthocyanin biosynthesis in red-fleshed apple.

Anthocyanins are important secondary metabolites in plants. They are important for human health because of their antioxidant activities and because their dietary intake reduces the incidence of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases and tumors. The biosynthesis of anthocyanins and its regulation in fruits and vegetables is a global research hotspot. Compared with cultivated apples, the red-fleshed apple is a relatively new and popular commodity in the market. Previous studies on red-fleshed apples have focused on the basis for the high anthocyanin content and the transcriptional regulation of anthocyanin synthesis. In the present study, we focused on the mechanism of microRNA-mediated post-transcriptional regulation of anthocyanin synthesis in red-fleshed apples. We identified a microRNA (miRNA), designated mdm-miR858, that is specifically expressed in the flesh of apple fruit. The expression level of miR858 was significantly lower in red-fleshed apples than in white-fleshed apples. The overexpression of mdm-miR858 significantly inhibited anthocyanin accumulation, whereas the silencing of mdm-miR858 promoted anthocyanin synthesis in STTM858 transgenic apple calli. Further analyses showed that mdm-miR858 targets the transcription factor genes MdMYB9 and MdMYBPA1 to participate anthocyanin accumulation in apple. Our results also show that MdHY5, a transcription factor in the light signaling pathway, can bind to the promoter of mdm-miR858 to inhibit its transcription, thereby regulating anthocyanin synthesis. Based on our results, we describe a novel HY5-miR858-MYB loop involved in the modulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis. These findings provide new information about how plant miRNAs regulate anthocyanin anabolism and provide a basis for breeding new anthocyanin-rich, red-fleshed apple varieties.

MdHB7-like positively modulates apple salt tolerance by promoting autophagic activity and Na+ efflux.

Salt stress adversely affects the yield and quality of crops and limits their geographical distribution. Studying the functions and regulatory mechanisms of key genes in the salt stress response is important for breeding crops with enhanced stress resistance. Autophagy plays an important role in modulating the tolerance of plants to various types of abiotic stressors. However, the mechanisms underlying salt-induced autophagy are largely unknown. Cation/Ca2+ exchanger proteins enhance apple salt tolerance by inhibiting Na+ accumulation but the mechanism underlying the response to salt stress remains unclear. Here, we show that the autophagy-related gene MdATG18a modulated apple salt tolerance. Under salt stress, the autophagic activity, proline content, and antioxidant enzyme activities were higher and Na+ accumulation was lower in MdATG18a-overexpressing transgenic plants than in control plants. The use of an autophagy inhibitor during the salt treatment demonstrated that the regulatory function of MdATG18a depended on autophagy. The yeast-one-hybrid assay revealed that the homeodomain-leucine zipper (HD-Zip) transcription factor MdHB7-like directly bound to the MdATG18a promoter. Transcriptional regulation and genetic analyses showed that MdHB7-like enhanced salt-induced autophagic activity by promoting MdATG18a expression. The analysis of Na+ efflux rate in transgenic yeast indicated that MdCCX1 expression significantly promoted Na+ efflux. Promoter binding, transcriptional regulation, and genetic analyses showed that MdHB7-like promoted Na+ efflux and apple salt tolerance by directly promoting MdCCX1 expression, which was independent of the autophagy pathway. Overall, our findings provide insight into the mechanism underlying MdHB7-like-mediated salt tolerance in apple through the MdHB7-like-MdATG18a and MdHB7-like-MdCCX1 modules. These results will aid future studies on the mechanisms underlying stress-induced autophagy and the regulation of stress tolerance in plants.

MxMPK6-2-mediated phosphorylation enhances the response of apple rootstocks to Fe deficiency by activating PM H+ -ATPase MxHA2.

Iron (Fe) deficiency significantly affects the growth and development, fruit yield and quality of apples. Apple roots respond to Fe deficiency stress by promoting H+ secretion, which acidifies the soil. In this study, the plasma membrane (PM) H+ -ATPase MxHA2 promoted H+ secretion and root acidification of apple rootstocks under Fe deficiency stress. H+ -ATPase MxHA2 is upregulated in Fe-efficient apple rootstock of Malus xiaojinensis at the transcription level. Fe deficiency also induced kinase MxMPK6-2, a positive regulator in Fe absorption that can interact with MxHA2. However, the mechanism involving these two factors under Fe deficiency stress is unclear. MxMPK6-2 overexpression in apple roots positively regulated PM H+ -ATPase activity, thus enhancing root acidification under Fe deficiency stress. Moreover, co-expression of MxMPK6-2 and MxHA2 in apple rootstocks further enhanced PM H+ -ATPase activity under Fe deficiency. MxMPK6-2 phosphorylated MxHA2 at the Ser909 site of C terminus, Thr320 and Thr412 sites of the Central loop region. Phosphorylation at the Ser909 and Thr320 promoted PM H+ -ATPase activity, while phosphorylation at Thr412 inhibited PM H+ -ATPase activity. MxMPK6-2 also phosphorylated the Fe deficiency-induced transcription factor MxbHLH104 at the Ser169 site, which then could bind to the promoter of MxHA2, thus enhancing MxHA2 upregulation. In conclusion, the MAP kinase MxMPK6-2-mediated phosphorylation directly and indirectly regulates PM H+ -ATPase MxHA2 activity at the protein post-translation and transcription levels, thus synergistically enhancing root acidification under Fe deficiency stress.

Field study of the fire-blight-resistant cisgenic apple line C44.4.146.

Cisgenesis, the genetic modification of a plant with genes from a sexually compatible plant, was used to confer fire blight resistance to the cultivar 'Gala Galaxy' by amendment of the resistance gene FB_MR5, resulting in the line C44.4.146. To verify whether cisgenesis changed other tree-, flower- or fruit-related traits, a 5-year field trial was conducted with trees of C44.4.146 and multiple control genotypes, including members of the 'Gala' sports group. None of the 44 investigated tree-, flower- or fruit-related traits significantly differed between C44.4.146 and at least one of the control genotypes in all observation years. However, fruits of C44.4.146 and its wild-type 'Gala Galaxy' from tissue culture were paler in color than fruits of 'Gala Galaxy' that had not undergone tissue culture. There was no significant and consistently detected difference in the fruit flesh and peel metabolome of C44.4.146 compared with the control genotypes. Finally, the disease resistance of C44.4.146 was confirmed also when the fire blight pathogen was inoculated through the flowers. We conclude that the use of cisgenesis to confer fire blight resistance to 'Gala Galaxy' in C44.4.146 did not have unintended effects, and that the in vitro establishment of 'Gala Galaxy' had a greater effect on C44.4.146 properties than its generation applying cisgenesis.

Evolution of the SPX gene family and its role in the response mechanism to low phosphorus stress in self-rooted apple stock.

BACKGROUND: Phosphorus plays a key role in plant adaptation to adversity and plays a positive role in the yield and quality formation of apples. Genes of the SPX domain-containing family are widely involved in the regulation of phosphorus signalling networks. However, the mechanisms controlling phosphorus deficiency are not completely understood in self-rooted apple stock. RESULTS: In this study, 26 members of the apple SPX gene family were identified by genome-wide analysis, and further divided into four subfamilies (SPX, SPX-MFS, SPX-EXS, and SPX-RING) based on their structural features. The chromosome distribution and gene duplications of MdSPXs were also examined. The promoter regions of MdSPXs were enriched for multiple biotic/abiotic stresses, hormone responses and typical P1BS-related elements. Analysis of the expression levels of 26 MdSPXs showed that some members were remarkably induced when subjected to low phosphate (Pi) stress, and in particular MdSPX2, MdSPX3, and MdPHO1.5 exhibited an intense response to low Pi stress. MdSPX2 and MdSPX3 showed significantly divergent expression levels in low Pi sensitive and insensitive apple species. Protein interaction networks were predicted for 26 MdSPX proteins. The interaction of MdPHR1 with MdSPX2, MdSPX3, MdSPX4, and MdSPX6 was demonstrated by yeast two-hybrid assay, suggesting that these proteins might be involved in the Pi-signaling pathway by interacting with MdPHR1. CONCLUSION: This research improved the understanding of the apple SPX gene family and contribute to future biological studies of MdSPX genes in self-rooted apple stock.

Metatranscriptome analysis of symptomatic bitter apple plants revealed mixed viral infections with a putative novel polerovirus.

BACKGROUND: Next-generation Sequencing (NGS) combined with bioinformatic analyses constitutes a powerful approach for identifying and characterizing previously unknown viral genomes. In this study, leaf samples from bitter apple plants (Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad) exhibiting symptoms such as dwarfing, leaf crinkling, and chlorosis were collected from the southern part of Kerman province, Iran. RESULTS: Putative infecting viruses were identified through de novo assembly of sequencing reads using various tools, followed by BLAST analysis. Complete genomes for Squash vein yellowing virus (SqVYV), Citrus-associated rhabdovirus (CiaRV), and a novel polerovirus-related strain termed Bitter apple aphid-borne yellows virus (BaABYV) were assembled and characterized. Additionally, a partial genome for Watermelon mosaic virus (WMV) was assembled. The genomic organization of the BaABYV was determined to be 5'-ORF0-ORF1-ORF1,2-ORF3a-ORF3-ORF3,5-ORF4-3'. Amino acid sequence identities for inferred proteins (P0 and P1, P1,2) with known poleroviruses were found to be the 90% species delineation limit, implying that BaABYV should be considered a new member of the genus Polerovirus. Recombination events were observed in the BaABYV and WMV strains; such events were not found in the CiaRV strain. CONCLUSIONS: Molecular evidence from this study suggests that C. colocynthis is a reservoir host of several plant viruses. Among them, BaABYV is proposed as a new member of the genus Polerovirus. Furthermore, the CiaRV strain has been reported for the first time from Iran.

Variation in Thermal Sensitivity of Diapause Development among Individuals and over Time Predicts Life History Timing in a Univoltine Insect.

AbstractPhysiological time is important for understanding the development and seasonal timing of ectothermic animals but has largely been applied to developmental processes that occur during spring and summer, such as morphogenesis. There is a substantial knowledge gap in the relationship between temperature and development during winter, a season that is increasingly impacted by climate change. Most temperate insects overwinter in diapause, a developmental process with little obvious morphological change. We used principles from the physiological time literature to measure and model the thermal sensitivity of diapause development rate in the apple maggot fly Rhagoletis pomonella, a univoltine fly whose diapause duration varies substantially within and among populations. We show that diapause duration can be predicted by modeling a relationship between temperature and development rate that is shifted toward lower temperatures compared with typical models of morphogenic, nondiapause development. However, incorporating interindividual variation and ontogenetic variation in the temperature-to-development rate relationship was critical for accurately predicting fly emergence, as diapause development proceeded more quickly at high temperatures later in diapause. We conclude that the conceptual framework may be flexibly applied to other insects and discuss possible mechanisms of diapause timers and implications for phenology with warming winters.