Preoperative glycaemic control, number of pain locations, structural knee damage, self-reported central sensitisation, satisfaction and personal control are predictive of 1-year postoperative pain, and change in pain from pre- to 1-year posttotal knee arthroplasty.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to identify preoperative predictors for 1-year posttotal knee arthroplasty (TKA) pain and pre- to post-TKA pain difference in knee osteoarthritis (KOA) patients. METHODS: From March 2018 to July 2023, this prospective longitudinal cohort study enrolled KOA patients awaiting TKA from four hospitals in Belgium and the Netherlands. Different biopsychosocial predictors were assessed preoperatively by questionnaires and physical examinations (input variables). The Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) subscale pain was used to measure pain intensity. The absolute KOOS subscale pain score 1-year post-TKA and the difference score (ΔKOOS = 1-year postoperative - preoperative) were used as primary outcome measures (output variables). Two multivariable linear regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: Two hundred and twenty-three participants were included after multiple imputation. Worse absolute KOOS subscale pain scores 1-year post-TKA and negative or closer to zero ΔKOOS subscale pain scores were predicted by self-reported central sensitisation, lower KOA grade and preoperative satisfaction, and higher glycated haemoglobin, number of pain locations and personal control (adjusted R2 = 0.25). Additional predictors of negative or closer to zero ΔKOOS subscale pain scores were being self-employed, higher preoperative pain and function (adjusted R2 = 0.37). CONCLUSION: This study reports different biopsychosocial predictors for both outcomes that have filtered out other potential predictors and provide value for future studies on developing risk assessment tools for the prediction of chronic TKA pain. PROTOCOL REGISTRATION: The protocol is registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT05380648) on 13 May 2022. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II.

Characteristics and distribution of chronic pain after mastectomy and breast reconstruction: a long-term prospective cohort study.

PURPOSE: Chronic pain following breast surgery is a concern for breast cancer survivors; however, few studies have investigated the localization of persistent postoperative pain. We conducted this study to identify the location of pain following breast reconstruction. METHODS: A total of 213 Japanese women undergoing mastectomy only or breast reconstruction with a tissue expander/implant (TE/Imp) or a deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap were enrolled in the study. Questionnaires related to pain location were sent to patients at the end of postoperative year (POY) 1 and POY 5. Multiple comparisons of the types of operation and cross-tabulation were made between the two time points. RESULTS: Surveys were completed by 107 of the women. Severe pain in the upper medial breast was significantly more common in POY 1 after DIEP reconstruction than after mastectomy only (P = 0.01), whereas abdominal pain was worse in POY 5 after DIEP reconstruction than after mastectomy only (P = 0.04). Pain in the medial arm and axilla had resolved better after TE/Imp (P = 0.03) and DIEP reconstruction (P = 0.01) than after mastectomy only by POY 5, but the difference between TE/Imp and DIEP reconstruction was not significant. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that localization of prolonged postoperative pain following breast reconstruction differs depending on the surgical strategy.

[Treatment and prevention phantom pain syndrome in mine-explosive injuries]. / Analiz ispol'zovaniya sovremennykh metodov lecheniya i profilaktiki fantomnogo bolevogo sindroma pri minno-vzryvnykh travmakh.

Phantom pain syndrome significantly impairs the quality of life and effectiveness of surgical treatment after limb amputations. The authors consider possible strategies for treatment and prevention in elective surgical intervention and mine-explosive injuries.

[Reflexology in patient rehabilitation with postoperative pain. (Literature review)]. / Refleksoterapiya v reabilitatsii patsientov s posleoperatsionnoi bol'yu. (Obzor literatury).

Postoperative pain is a pressing medical problem, as it significantly reduces the quality of life of patients after surgical treatment. Chronic postoperative pain further disables patients and impairs their functional activity. Being a widespread interdisciplinary problem, postoperative pain requires the integration of various pain management methods in complex multimodal pain management in the acute period and treatment programs for its chronicity. The paper examines the possibilities of reflexology methods for the relief of acute and treatment of chronic postoperative pain. Integration of reflex effects from the first days after surgery makes it possible to more effectively and safely solve the problems of acute and chronic postoperative pain.

Effect of lidocaine perioperative infusion on chronic postsurgical pain in patients undergoing thoracoscopic radical pneumonectomy.

BACKGROUND: Thoracoscopic radical pneumonectomy is associated with a high incidence of postoperative chronic pain. Studies on the benefits of lidocaine intravenous infusion during the perioperative period were still controversial in thoracoscopic surgery. METHODS: Sixty-four lung cancer patients scheduled for thoracoscopic radical pneumonectomy were randomly divided into two groups: normal saline group (control group) or lidocaine group. In the lidocaine group, 1.5 mg/kg lidocaine was administered during the anesthesia induction, and 2 mg·kg-1·h-1 lidocaine was continuously intravenous infused until the end of the surgery. After the surgery, a mixture of 2 µg/kg sufentanil and 10 mg/kg lidocaine was continuously intravenous infused by postoperative patient-controlled intravenous analgesia pump (100 ml). In the control group, the same volume of normal saline was administered according to the calculation of lidocaine during anesthesia induction, maintenance and postoperative patient-controlled intravenous analgesia. The primary outcome was the incidence of chronic postoperative pain at 3 months after the surgery. The secondary outcomes include the incidence of chronic postoperative pain at 6 months after the surgery; the effect of lidocaine on postoperative pain within the first 24 and 48 h; total amount of sufentanil administered during entire procedure and the number of PCA triggers within 48 h after surgery. RESULTS: Compared with the control group, the incidence of chronic pain at 3 months after the surgery was significantly lower (13 cases, 46.4% vs. 6 cases, 20.7%, p < 0.05), but no significant difference at 6 months between two group. The cumulative dosage of sufentanil in perioperative period was significantly lower (149.64 ± 18.20 µg vs. 139.47 ± 16.75 µg) (p < 0.05), and the number of PCA triggers (8.21 ± 4.37 vs. 5.83 ± 4.12, p < 0.05) was significantly greater in the control group. The NRS pain scores at 24 h (1.68 ± 0.72 vs. 1.90 ± 0.86) and 48 h (1.21 ± 0.42 vs. 1.20 ± 0.41) after the operation were no significant difference. CONCLUSION: Perioperative infusion lidocaine significantly reduced the number of PCA triggers and the incidence of chronic postoperative pain at 3 months after the thoracoscopic radical pneumonectomy. TRIAL REGISTRATION: http://www.chictr.org.cn : ChiCTR1900024759, frist registration date 26/07/2019.

Identifying Patients at High Risk of Chronic Pain After Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Surgery Using Thermal Quantitative Sensory Testing.

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether perioperative thermal quantitative sensory testing could be used to identify patients at high risk of chronic pain after video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS). DESIGN: A single-center, prospective, observational study. SETTING: At the Peking University People's Hospital. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 111 patients scheduled to undergo VATS were enrolled. INTERVENTIONS: Quantitative sensory testing was conducted at the anterior intercostal incision prior to surgery and after chest tube removal. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The patient's chronic pain was assessed at 3 months after surgery using a questionnaire. The incidence of chronic pain was 35 out of 107 evaluable patients (32.7%). Among the 35 patients with chronic pain, 26 had features characteristic of neuropathic pain (74.3%). Compared to the patients without chronic pain, subjects with chronic pain had a significantly greater perioperative change in cold pain threshold (CPT; p = 0.032), but not cold detection threshold, warm detection threshold, and hot pain threshold . In the multivariate regression, perioperative CPT change was associated with chronic pain after VATS (odds ratio = 1.043, p = 0.026). CONCLUSIONS: Chronic pain after VATS is typically neuropathic. The change in perioperative CPT at the incision site may help to identify patients at higher risk of chronic pain after VATS.

Transcutaneous Electric Nerve Stimulation Reduces Pathological Sensation of Mesh One Week after Open Inguinal Hernia Surgery: Follow-Up Results from a Randomized, Double Blind and Placebo-Controlled Trial.

Background and Objectives: Quality of life (QoL) and chronic pain are important outcomes following hernia surgery. The long-term effects of Transcutaneous Electric Nerve Stimulation (TENS) on postoperative recovery are not well known. In this trial we investigated the role of TENS on QoL and on the incidence of chronic pain following inguinal hernia repair with mesh. Materials and Methods: A total of 80 male patients with elective primary unilateral hernia Lichtenstein repair were randomly allocated to receive TENS or a placebo-TENS procedure. The TENS group received conventional TENS twice a day on the first and second postoperative days. The intensity was set at 0-0.5 mA in the placebo-TENS group. General and hernia-specific QoL, as well as the incidence of chronic pain were assessed using SF-36v2 and the Carolinas comfort scale. Results: Less sensation of mesh was reported by the TENS group patients one week after surgery. At this time point, the mean sensation score was 6.07 ± 8.88 in the TENS group and 14.08 ± 16.67 in the placebo-TENS group (p = 0.029). Although at two days and one week postoperatively, TENS group patients tended to have less pain, less movement restrictions and better overall hernia-specific QoL, the differences were not statistically significant. At 6 months postoperatively, no incidence of chronic pain was found in either the placebo-TENS or TENS group. Conclusions: Conventional TENS applied in the early postoperative period following inguinal hernia repair with mesh was found to reduce mesh-related foreign body sensation one week after surgery. Promising results were also found for other QoL domains.

The different mechanisms of peripheral and central TLR4 on chronic postsurgical pain in rats.

Chronic postsurgical pain (CPSP) is a common complication after surgery; however, the underlying mechanisms of CPSP are poorly understood. As one of the most important inflammatory pathways, the Toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor-kappa B (TLR4/NF-κB) signaling pathway plays an important role in chronic pain. However, the precise role of the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in CPSP remains unclear. In the present study, we established a rat model of CPSP induced by skin/muscle incision and retraction (SMIR) and verified the effects and mechanisms of central and peripheral TLR4 and NF-κB on hyperalgesia in SMIR rats. The results showed that TLR4 expression was increased in both the spinal dorsal horn and dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) of SMIR rats. However, the TLR4 expression pattern in the spinal cord was different from that in DRGs. In the spinal cord, TLR4 was expressed in both neurons and microglia, whereas it was expressed in neurons but not in satellite glial cells in DRGs. Further results demonstrate that the central and peripheral TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway is involved in the SMIR-induced CPSP by different mechanisms. In the peripheral nervous system, we revealed that the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway induced upregulation of voltage-gated sodium channel 1.7 (Nav1.7) in DRGs, triggering peripheral hyperalgesia in SMIR-induced CPSP. In the central nervous system, the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway participated in SMIR-induced CPSP by activating microglia in the spinal cord. Ultimately, our findings demonstrated that activation of the peripheral and central TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway involved in the development of SMIR-induced CPSP.

A pilot multicentre randomised controlled trial of lidocaine infusion in women undergoing breast cancer surgery.

Chronic postoperative pain is common after breast cancer surgery. Peri-operative lidocaine infusion may prevent the development of chronic postoperative pain, but a large-scale trial is required to test this hypothesis. It is unclear whether a pragmatic, multicentre trial design that is consistent with expert guidance, addresses the limitations of previous studies, and overcomes existing translational barriers is safe, effective and feasible. We conducted a double-blind, randomised controlled pilot study in 150 patients undergoing breast cancer surgery across three hospitals in Western Australia. Patients received lidocaine, or equivalent volumes of saline, as an intravenous bolus (1.5 mg.kg-1 ) and infusion (2 mg.kg-1 .h-1 ) intra-operatively, and a subcutaneous infusion (1.33 mg.kg-1 .h-1 ) postoperatively for up to 12 h on a standard surgical ward, with novel safety monitoring tools in place. The co-primary outcomes were: in-hospital safety events; serum levels of lidocaine during intravenous and subcutaneous infusion; and annualised enrolment rates per site with long-term data capture. In-hospital safety events were rare, and similar in the placebo and lidocaine arms (3% vs. 1%). Median (IQR [range]) serum lidocaine levels during intravenous (2.16 (1.74-2.83 [1.12-6.06]) µg.ml-1 , n = 41) and subcutaneous (1.52 (1.28-1.83 [0.64-2.85]) µg.ml-1 , n = 48) infusion were comparable with previous trials reporting improved pain outcomes. Annualised enrolment approximated 50 patients per site per year, with high levels of protocol adherence and ≥ 99% capture of outcomes at 3 and 6 months. The adjusted odds ratio (95%CI) for postoperative pain at 6 months in the lidocaine arm was 0.790 (0.370-1.684). We conclude that this trial, as designed, is safe, effective and feasible in patients undergoing breast cancer surgery, and a larger-scale trial is planned.

The role of regional anaesthesia and multimodal analgesia in the prevention of chronic postoperative pain: a narrative review.

Effective prevention of chronic postoperative pain is an important clinical goal, informed by a growing body of studies. Peri-operative regional anaesthesia remains one of the most important tools in the multimodal analgesic toolbox, blocking injury-induced activation and sensitisation of both the peripheral and central nervous system. We review the definition and taxonomy of chronic postoperative pain, its mechanistic basis and the most recent evidence for the preventative potential of multimodal analgesia, with a special focus on regional anaesthesia. While regional anaesthesia targets several important aspects of the mechanistic pathway leading to chronic postoperative pain, evidence for its efficacy is still mixed, possibly owing to the heterogeneity of risk profiles within the surgical patient, but also to variation in techniques and medications reported in the literature.

[Chronic postoperative pain]. / Problema khronicheskoi posleoperatsionnoi boli.

The problem of chronic postoperative pain has been actualized for the last 20 years all over the world. At least 10-40% of patients suffer from chronic pain after surgery. This review is devoted to the current state of the problem of chronic postoperative pain, risk factors and prediction of chronic pain. The authors emphasize the need for interdisciplinary approach to prevention and treatment of this adverse event.

Chronic Postoperative Pain After Hysterectomy for Endometrial Cancer: A Metabolic Profiling Study.

INTRODUCTION: One out of seven women will develop a state of chronic postoperative pain following robot-assisted hysterectomy for endometrial cancer. Recently, metabolic studies have indicated that circulating lipids and lipoproteins could act as nociceptive modulators and thereby influence the induction and perpetuation of pain. The objectives of this explorative study were (1) to examine the preoperative serologic variations in concentrations of lipids, lipoproteins, and various low-molecular metabolites in patients with and without chronic postoperative pain after robot-assisted hysterectomy and (2) to explore if any of these serological biomarkers were predictive for development of chronic postoperative pain. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was designed as a nested case-control study within a cohort of women treated for endometrial cancer with robot-assisted laparoscopic hysterectomy. Twenty-six women with chronic postoperative pain were matched on age and body mass index with fifty-two controls without chronic postoperative pain, and metabolic profiling of preoperatively drawn blood samples from a biobank was performed by means of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. RESULTS: Nineteen metabolites, including cholesterol, cholesteryl ester, linoleic acid, phospholipids, lipids, and triglycerides had statistically significant higher concentrations in a subgroup of patients who would develop chronic postoperative pain on a later stage compared to the group of patients who would not develop chronic postoperative pain (p < 0.05). A sparse Partial Least Squares-Discriminant Analysis model explained 38.1% of the variance and had a predictive accuracy of 73.1%. CONCLUSIONS: This explorative study substantiates the hypothesis that certain lipids, lipoproteins, and fatty acids are associated with chronic postoperative pain.

Prevalence and intensity of persistent post-surgical pain following breast cancer surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence and intensity of persistent post-surgical pain (PPSP) after breast cancer surgery are uncertain. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to further elucidate this issue. METHODS: We searched MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and PsycINFO, from inception to November 2018, for observational studies reporting persistent pain (≥3 months) after breast cancer surgery. We used random-effects meta-analysis and the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations approach to rate quality of evidence. RESULTS: We included 187 observational studies with 297 612 breast cancer patients. The prevalence of PPSP ranged from 2% to 78%, median 37% (inter-quartile range: 22-48%); the pooled prevalence was 35% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 32-39%). The pooled pain intensity was 3.9 cm on a 10 cm visual analogue scale (95% CI: 3.6-4.2 cm). Moderate-quality evidence supported the subgroup effects of PPSP prevalence for localized pain vs any pain (29% vs 44%), moderate or greater vs any pain (26% vs 44%), clinician-assessed vs patient-reported pain (23% vs 36%), and whether patients underwent sentinel lymph node biopsy vs axillary lymph node dissection (26% vs 43%). The adjusted analysis found that the prevalence of patient-reported PPSP (any severity/location) was 46% (95% CI: 36-56%), and the prevalence of patient-reported moderate-to-severe PPSP at any location was 27% (95% CI: 10-43%). CONCLUSIONS: Moderate-quality evidence suggests that almost half of all women undergoing breast cancer surgery develop persistent post-surgical pain, and about one in four develop moderate-to-severe persistent post-surgical pain; the higher prevalence was associated with axillary lymph node dissection. Future studies should explore whether nerve sparing for axillary procedures reduces persistent post-surgical pain after breast cancer surgery.

Place of surgery in the management of post-operative chronic pain after placement of prosthetic material based on a series of 107 cases.

AIMS: The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of surgical removal of prosthetic material, possibly combined with nerve release, on chronic postoperative pain following placement of prosthetic material. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Single-tertiary-centre study on 107 patients managed between November 2004 and April 2016 for removal of prosthetic material responsible for postoperative chronic pain: retropubic suburethral sling (n = 32), transobturator suburethral sling (n = 50), prolapse mesh (n = 16), and hernia mesh (n = 9). The primary endpoint was at least 50% reduction of pain evaluated by a pain numerical rating scale (NRS). RESULTS: The mean interval between the initial operation involving placement of prosthetic material and reoperation for removal of prosthetic material was 41.2 ± 35.4 months. In all cases pain apperaed immediately following prosthetic material placement surgery. Pain presented neuropathic features in almost 30% of cases and was poorly systematized in more than one-half The mean follow-up of the study population was 8.4 ± 10.3 months. The mean pain NRS score for the overall population was seven preoperatively and three at last follow-up. At least 50% reduction of the pain NRS score was observed 67% of cases at last follow-up. During follow-up, 45% of patients experienced relapse of the disorder for which the prosthetic material was initially placed with, in particular, a 62% recurrence rate of urinary incontinence after removal of transobturator suburethral tape. CONCLUSION: Surgical removal of prosthetic material to treat chronic postoperative pain, achieved global improvement of pain in about two-thirds of cases, but with a risk of recurrence of the initial disorders.

Predictive Factors for Developing Chronic Pain After Total Knee Arthroplasty.

Total knee arthroplasty offers substantial improvements for patients as measured by functional status and quality of life; however, 8% to 34% of patients experience chronic postsurgical pain following surgery (CPSP). In addition to disruption in daily activities of life caused by the pain itself, CPSP has been associated with an overall reduction in quality of life following surgery. Risk factors for CPSP can be broadly defined as potentially modifiable or unlikely modifiable. Unlikely modifiable risks include gender, age, medical comorbidities, and socioeconomic status. Potentially modifiable risks include perioperative pain, physical function, psychological state, surgical factors, and possibly genomics. Understanding risks and the magnitude of their effect on outcomes such as CPSP is desirable because interventions designed to affect these factors may be able to dramatically improve outcomes.

The Influence of Type of Anesthesia, Perioperative Pain, and Preoperative Health Status on Chronic Pain Six Months After Thoracotomy-A Prospective Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Chronic post-thoracotomy pain (CPP) has a high incidence. However, less is known about risk factors and the influence of different analgesia therapies. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study, patients either received standardized epidural analgesia or began an oral analgesic protocol with controlled-release oxycodone immediately postoperatively. Patients answered a baseline questionnaire on the day before surgery and a follow-up questionnaire six months postoperatively. The questionnaire included Short-Form 12, the Neuropathic Pain Scale, and descriptive questions for CPP. Pain protocols of all patients were examined. Logistic regression was used to analyze the risk factors related to CPP. RESULTS: One hundred seventy-four patients were enrolled; data of 131 patients were available after the six-month follow-up period. Fifty-one patients (39%) had CPP six months postoperatively. Of these, more than 80% had impaired daily activity or ability to work, or reported sleeping disturbance due to CPP. The strongest predictive factors for the development of CPP were: thoracic pain for three months preoperatively (odds ratio [OR] = 3.54, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.69-7.40, P = 0.001), thoracic pain for 12 months preoperatively (OR = 2.73, 95% CI = 1.28-5.83, P = 0.009), and higher pain scores at rest in the first five postoperative days compared with patients without CPP (OR = 1.79, 95% CI = 1.24-2.57, P = 0.002). Neuropathic pain was present in 4.8% of patients. Patients with CPP had a reduced physical (P = 0.005) and mental health status (P = 0.03) six months after surgery compared with patients without CPP. CONCLUSIONS: Preoperative thoracic pain and higher pain scores in the first five postoperative days seem to be the strongest risk factors for the development of CPP. CPP patients reported poorer mental and physical health before and six months after surgery.

An Evidence-Based Review of the Efficacy of Perioperative Analgesic Techniques for Breast Cancer-Related Surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To review the published evidence regarding perioperative analgesic techniques for breast cancer-related surgery. DESIGN: Topical review. METHODS: Randomized, controlled trials (RCTs) were selected for inclusion in the review. Also included were large prospective series providing estimates of potential risks and technical reports and small case series demonstrating a new technique or approaches of interest to clinicians. RESULTS: A total of 514 abstracts were reviewed, with 284 studies meeting criteria for full review. The evidence regarding preemptive ketamine, scheduled opioids, perioperative non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and intravenous lidocaine is mixed and deserves further investigation. There is strong evidence that both pregabalin and gabapentin provide analgesic benefits following breast surgery. There is minimal and conflicting data from high-quality randomized, controlled studies suggesting that directly infiltrating and/or infusing local anesthetic (liposome encapsulated or unencapsulated) into the surgical wound is a reliably effective analgesic. In contrast, there is a plethora of data demonstrating the potent analgesia, opioid sparing, and decreased opioid-related side effects from thoracic epidural infusion and both single-injection and continuous paravertebral nerve blocks (the latter two demonstrating decreased persistent post-surgical pain between 2.5 and 12 months). Techniques with limited-yet promising-data deserving additional investigation include brachial plexus blocks, cervical epidural infusion, interfascial plane blocks, and interpleural blocks. CONCLUSIONS: While there are currently multiple promising analgesic techniques for surgical procedures of the breast that deserve further study, the only modalities demonstrated to provide potent, consistent perioperative pain control are thoracic epidural infusion and paravertebral nerve blocks.

Tailored therapy for different presentations of chronic pain after stapled hemorrhoidopexy.

BACKGROUND: As stapled hemorrhoidopexy (SH) becomes more widely used, we see more patients with chronic postoperative anal pain after this surgery. Its presentation is variable and difficult to treat. The aim of our study was to investigate the impact of chronic anal pain after SH and whether tailored therapy was likely to achieve a favorable outcome. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed 31 consecutive patients with chronic anal pain who had undergone SH in other hospitals and were referred to our institutions. Depending on the type of pain, unrelated (at rest) or related to defecation, two groups of patients were identified. Moreover, the mean distance of the staple line from the anal verge was calculated in both groups. Treatments included: topical nifedipine, local anesthetic and steroid infiltration, removal of retained staples, anal dilation, and scar excision with mucosal suturing. A visual analog scale (VAS) was used to compare pain at baseline, postoperatively, and in the follow-up. This mean difference of the VAS score between stages was always used as the main outcome measure, depending on the type of presentation, type of pain, and type of treatment. Treatment response was defined as a 50 % decrease of VAS from baseline. RESULTS: There were 22 males and 9 females. The overall median age was 43 years (range 21-62 years). On digital examination and proctoscopy, 15 (48 %) patients had inflammatory changes, 19 (61 %) patients had staple retention, 8 (26 %) patients had anorectal stenosis, and 30 (97 %) patients had scar tissue. All patients had one or more of the following treatments listed from the least to most invasive: topical nifedipine in 12 (39 %) patients, anal dilation in 6 (19 %) patients, anesthetic and steroid infiltration in 18 (58 %) patients, removal of staples in 10 (32 %) patients, and scar excision in 18 (58 %) patients. The mean VAS score at baseline was 6.100, ± 1.953 SD, which dropped significantly after treatment to 1.733, ± 1.658 SD (p < 0.001) and remained low at follow-up (1.741 ± SD 1.251; p < 0.743). In patients with pain at rest (n = 20, 65 %), the symptoms improved in 19 (95 %) patients, while the VAS score decreased from 5.552 ± 2.115 SD to 1.457 ± 1.440 SD (95 % CI 3.217-4.964; p < 0.001). In patients with post-evacuation pain (n = 11, 35 %), the symptoms improved in 11 (100 %) patients, while the VAS score decreased from 6.429 ± 1.835 SD to 1.891 ± 1.792 SD (95 % CI 3.784-5.269; p < 0.001). Rating of response based on presentation was 90.0 % (0.9/10) after treatment of staple retention, which led to a significant decrease in the mean VAS score from 6.304 ± 1.845 SD to 1.782 ± 1.731 SD (95 % CI 3.859-5.185; p < 0.001). Anal stenosis was successfully treated in 100.0 % (n = 8/8) of cases with the mean VAS score dropping from 6.500 ± 1.309 SD to 2.125 ± 1.808 SD (95 % CI 2.831-5.919; p < 0.001). Anal inflammation improved in 60.0 % (n = 9/15) of patients and the mean VAS score dropped from 6.006 ± 2.138 SD to 1.542 ± 1.457 SD (95 % CI 3.217-4.964; p < 0.001). The response after scar tissue treatment was 94 % (n = 17/18) of patients with a mean VAS decreasing from 6.117 ± 2.006 SD to 1.712 ± 1.697 SD (95 % CI 3.812-4.974; p < 0.001). Success for topical nifedipine was between 13 and 25 % of patients depending on the clinical presentation. Anal dilation was successful in 75 % of patients, while Anesthetic and steroid infiltration in 23-54 % of patients depending on the clinical presentation. Staple removal was successful in 77 % of patients, and scar excision with mucosal suturing in 94 % of patients. CONCLUSIONS: Our retrospective study suggests that most patients with chronic anal pain after SH may be cured with treatment by applying a stepwise approach from the least to the most invasive treatment.