Biochar effects on NTFP-enriched secondary forest growth and soil properties in Amazonian Ecuador.

Deforestation in the Amazon has resulted in large areas of depleted soils on abandoned pastures and agricultural sites that present a restoration challenge central to protecting biodiversity and ecosystem function in the region. Biochar - charcoal made from waste materials - can improve soil physical, chemical, and biological properties, but the few tropical field trials to date do not give consistent results regarding tree growth. This study presents three years of soil performance and tree growth of a secondary forest shading nontimber forest product (NTFP) plantations of Ocotea quixos (Lauraceae), Myroxylon balsamum (Fabaceae), and their mixture. Open kiln and traditional mound biochars were added at 10 t ha-1 at two sites with contrasting soil types. Biochar additions resulted in pronounced effects on soil properties that varied over time and with depth in the soil profile. Biochar additions generally increased soil organic matter, electrical conductivity, and plant nutrients (in particular K, Ca, and N), but there were interactive effects of NTFP treatments, and stronger responses on the poorer soil type. Biochar amendments resulted in increased tree growth, with a 29 ± 12% increase in aboveground biomass (AGB) on plots amended with kiln biochar and a 23 ± 9% increase in plots with mound biochar compared to controls. Tree species also varied in growth responses to biochar additions, with the largest increases observed in Jaccaranda copaia and Piptocoma discolor. Significant interactions between biochar and NTFP treatments were also seen for tree growth responses, such as Cecropia spp., which only showed increased biomass on mound biochar plots planted with Ocotea quixos. Overall, our results demonstrate a stronger effect of biochar in less favorable soil conditions, and an overriding effect of the legume NTFP in richer soils, and suggest that additions of biochar and legumes are important options to increase productivity and ecological resilience in tropical forest restoration.

Household Dependence on Forest Resources in the Luki Biosphere Reserve, Democratic Republic of CONGO.

This study was aimed at examining the contribution of forest products to rural livelihoods and the socio-economic factors that influence household forest dependence in the Luki Biosphere Reserve. A structured questionnaire poll of 193 households randomly chosen from two enclaves in the Luki Biosphere Reserve, and focus group discussions were used to gather the data. For data analysis, a binary logistic regression model was used. The study revealed a substantial contribution of forest products to household livelihood based on household wealth strata and the gender of the household head. The contribution of forest income has been found to be higher for poor households than to other wealth categories, although their mean income from forest was low. However, the present research further revealed that household forest dependence was significantly determined by socioeconomic factors such as length of residency, age, sex, education, employment and household size. Compared to their elderly counterparts, the youth were probably more dependent on forest products. Therefore, there should be increased capacity-building efforts among the young people to enable them enlighten the local communities about the need for sustainable forest management. Meanwhile, highly educated people were observed to be less dependent on forests. The findings of this research provides empirical evidence from the Mayombe tropical forest, thus contributing to the growth of knowledge on the impact of socioeconomic factors on the household dependence on forest resources, especially in the tropical forest of the Democratic Republic of Congo where the complexity of the relationship between local communities and their environment is still being studied.

Sustainable cultivation of the white truffle (Tuber magnatum) requires ecological understanding.

The white truffle (Tuber magnatum Picco.; WT) is the most expensive and arguably also the most delicious species within the genus Tuber. Due to its hidden belowground life cycle, complex host symbiosis, and yet unknown distribution, cultivation of the enigmatic species has only recently been achieved at some plantations in France. A sustainable production of WTs under future climate change, however, requires a better ecological understanding of the species' natural occurrence. Here, we combine information from truffle hunters with a literature review to assess the climatic, edaphic, geographic, and symbiotic characteristics of 231 reported WT sites in southeast Europe. Our meta-study shows that 75% of the WT sites are located outside the species' most famous harvest region, the Piedmont in northern Italy. Spanning a wide geographic range from ~ 37° N in Sicily to ~ 47° N in Hungary, and elevations between sea level in the north and 1000 m asl in the south, all WT sites are characterised by mean winter temperatures > 0.4 °C and summer precipitation totals of ~ 50 mm. Often formed during past flood or landslide events, current soil conditions of the WT sites exhibit pH levels between 6.4 and 8.7, high macroporosity, and a cation exchange capacity of ~ 17 meq/100 g. At least 26 potential host species from 12 genera were reported at the WT sites, with Populus alba and Quercus cerris accounting for 23.5% of all plant species. We expect our findings to contribute to a sustainable WT industry under changing environmental and economic conditions.

Assessing the spatial effects of economic freedom on forest-products, grazing-land, and cropland footprints: The case of Asia-Pacific countries.

The literature has shown that economic freedom yields higher economic growth. However, the nexus between economic freedom and the environment in a world of spatial dependency is unclear. Using data from a panel of seventeen Asia-Pacific countries from 2000 to 2017, we investigate the direct and spillover effects of economic freedom (as measured by the annual indexes developed by the Heritage Foundation) and other variables on the ecological footprint of three land-cover types: cropland, forest products, and grazing land. Diagnostic tests confirm the existence of spatial-interaction effects in forest products and grazing land but reject it for cropland. Using a spatial Durbin panel model, we find that the intensity of energy use has a significant impact on the environmental footprint of all resource types. We also confirm the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis for forest products and grazing land but not cropland. Unlike previous researchers, we find cropland footprints are unaffected by natural resource rents. We also find that the tax burden is the only economic freedom indicator with a positive and significant impact on all three environmental footprints. Our findings suggest that more investment freedom reduces environmental pressure on cropland and forest-products footprints but has a nonsignificant effect on the grazing-land footprint. Further, financial freedom reduces the forest-products footprint and increases the grazing-land footprint. Property rights, the tax burden, and business freedom increase environmental pressure while government spending lessens grazing land's ecological footprint. Our indirect and overall impact analyses suggest that all types of economic freedom reduce environmental strain in our panel. This research points to the importance of enacting environmental regulations in a way that guarantees ecological sustainability and economic development.

Fine-scale spatial genetic structure, mating, and gene dispersal patterns in Parkia biglobosa populations with different levels of habitat fragmentation.

PREMISE: A good understanding of genetic variation and gene dispersal in tree populations is crucial for their sustainable management, particularly in a context of rapid environmental changes. West African Sudanian savannahs are being fragmented and degraded, partly due to expansion of crop cultivation and monocultures that reduce tree density and may impact pollinators. The population dynamics of important indigenous trees could also be affected. We investigated the influence of habitat fragmentation on patterns of genetic diversity and gene dispersal of a key Sudanian agroforestry tree species, Parkia biglobosa. METHODS: Using 10 highly polymorphic nuclear microsatellites, we genotyped 2475 samples from reproductive trees, seedlings, and embryos in four tree populations presenting different levels of habitat fragmentation. RESULTS: Parkia biglobosa presented similar high genetic diversity across the four populations studied. Genetic diversity and inbreeding were similar between adults and embryo cohorts. In all four populations, the selfing rate was less than 1%. The effective number of pollen donors per tree was high (NEP ~ 18-22), as was the pollen immigration rate (from 34 to 74%). Pollen dispersal was characterized by a fat-tailed distribution with mean estimates exceeding 200 m. In three populations, stem diameter had a pronounced effect on male reproductive success. Here, the highest male reproductive success was observed in trees with a diameter at breast height between 60 and 75 cm. CONCLUSIONS: At the scale analyzed, fragmentation does not seem to pose limitations to gene flow in any of the sites investigated, regardless of the landscape configuration associated with the different tree stands. The study provides useful insights on the reproductive biology of an important tree species in the West African savannahs.

The Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) in Southern Kenya-A Study on Status, Distribution, Use and Importance in Taita-Taveta County.

Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) is a multipurpose, drought resistant, wild fruit tree, endemic to arid and semi-arid lands of Sub-Saharan Africa. Baobab populations have been showing a lack of regeneration, and therefore causes concern for the species survival. This study investigated the state, distribution and use of baobabs in an under-researched population in Kenya, to identify the potential for further use and development of baobab resources. A baobab population was chosen in Taita-Taveta County, covering a sample area of 2015 km2. A systematic stratified transect survey was done to map baobab distribution using 49 transects (0.5 × 3 km each). The diameter at breast height and other indicators were measured on all baobabs in the transects to assess population status and health. A household survey (n = 46) and focus group discussions (n = 12) were done following the transect survey to gain an idea on the uses and distribution of baobab. In total, 432 baobab trees were measured and recorded in the research area of 2015 km2. The baobabs grew in two clusters (i.e., areas with a baobab density of ≥0.08 baobabs/ha). Both clusters showed rejuvenating populations. The main factors identified by the respondents, positively and negatively influencing baobab distribution were environmental factors, wildlife, human impact and commercial value. The study area shows a great potential for baobab to become an important part of the diet, due to its current use as an emergency food during food scarce times, and the relatively healthy and stable rejuvenating populations.

Effects of different levels of exploration on the ecological processes of Dimorphandra gardneriana, a tropical savanna tree.

The exploitation of forest resources, especially non-timber forest products, has effects on different biological levels, from the biochemical level of an organism to the ecosystem level. The present study addresses the effects of different management strategies (protected area, managed area, and an area where the species is cultivated in agroforestry systems) in reproductive phenology, fruit features, and phytochemical profiles of Dimorphandra gardneriana (Leguminosae), a tree species, pioneer, and socioeconomically important plant of the Brazilian Savanna. Its fruits are exploited by extractivist communities to obtain rutin and quercetin, which are internationally traded bioflavonoids (two of the ten most exported phytochemicals in Brazil). The results showed that the effects on these parameters were characterized as positive, increasing according to the level of exploitation. The agroforestry system had higher yields of flavonoids of economic interest, viable fruits and seeds, followed by the management area and the protected area. Finally, knowledge about the planting effects on fava d'anta fruit production can be a great ally for effectively managing forest resources. A varied system of exploitation implies greater and more stable economic returns for extractive communities, favoring the conservation of the species in protected areas.

Projecting global planted forest area developments and the associated impacts on global forest product markets.

Planted forests are a rising share of total forests globally and an increasingly important source of timber product output, affecting national and global markets. We estimated econometric models of planted forest area by OECD and non-OECD country groups that control for economic, institutional and environmental policies likely to influence future changes in planted forest area. The models are then used to project planted forest area over next 55 years for 180 countries under five alternative scenarios of global socio-economic changes, represented in shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs), adjunct products emerging from the Fifth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). By embedding key features of the SSP projections into a global forest sector model, we evaluate how planted forests lead to different global forest product market outcomes for each SSP, compared to corresponding outcomes where planted forests are not considered separately. Projected global planted forest area in 2070 ranges from 379 million ha (Mha) for SSP3 (a relatively poor and unequal world) to 475 Mha under SSP5 (a relatively wealthier and more equal world), representing respective increases of 46% and 66% compared to 2015. SSPs with the highest planted forest area increases have the lowest product prices (down by 12% by 2070, compared to SSP5 without planted forests) and higher global forest products production and consumption quantities (by as much as 3.3% by 2070, compared to SSP5 without planted forests). However, production does not increase in all countries by similar amounts, due to changes in relative advantages in production brought about by reduced product prices.

Nutritional quality of almond, canarium, cashew and pistachio and their oil photooxidative stability.

Daily consumption of nuts is recommended as a part of a healthy diet as they contain protein and are rich in beneficial fatty acids and essential nutrients. The nutritional qualities of nuts are affected by their fatty acid composition and other factors such as maturity. Oil oxidative stability is important to determine nut nutritional quality in terms of fatty acid composition over storage. Therefore, this study aimed to (a) assess the nutritional quality (photooxidative stability and nutrient composition) of almond, cashew, pistachio and canarium (a newly commercialised indigenous nut); and (b) explore differences in nutrient concentrations between immature and mature canarium nuts. A decrease in polyunsaturated fats after photooxidation in almond and pistachio was observed. Canarium oil did not change following photooxidation suggesting canarium may display a long shelf life when stored appropriately. Our study indicated that almond provided over 50% of the recommended daily intake for manganese whereas canarium intake provided 50% of the recommended daily intake for iron (for males). Pistachio was richer in potassium compared with other nuts and canarium was richer in boron, iron and zinc than other nut species. Mature canarium kernels were richer in boron, iron and zinc but contained less potassium than immature canarium. Therefore, the current study recommended to store kernels in dark to decrease oil photooxidation, and maturity of canarium kernels at the harvest time was important affecting nutrient concentrations of kernels.

Black Truffle Harvesting in Spanish Forests: Trends, Current Policies and Practices, and Implications on its Sustainability.

The European black truffle is a mycorrhizal fungus native to Spanish Mediterranean forests. In most Spanish regions it was originally commercially harvested in the second half of the 20th century. Experts agree that wild truffle yields suffered a sharp decline during the 1970s and 1980s. However, official statistics for Spanish harvest are scarce and seemingly conflicting, and little attention has been paid to the regime for the exploitation of truffle-producing forests and its implications on the sustainability of this resource. Trends in harvest from 1969 to 2013 and current harvesting practices were analyzed as a case study, taking into account that Spain is a major truffle producer worldwide, but at the same time truffles have only recently been exploited. The available statistical sources, which include an increasing proportion of cultivated truffles since the mid-1990s, were explored, with estimates from Truffle Harvesters Federation showing higher consistency. Statistical sources were then compared with proxies for wild harvest (rents from truffle leases in public forests) to corroborate time trends in wild harvesting. Results suggest that black truffle production is recovering in recent years thanks to plantations, whereas wild harvest is still declining. The implications of Spanish legal and institutional framework on sustainability of wild truffle use are reviewed. In the current scenario, the decline of wild harvest is likely to continue and eventually make commercial harvesting economically unattractive, thus aggravating sustainability issues. Strengthening of property rights, rationalization of harvesting pressure, forest planning and involvement of public stakeholders are proposed as corrective measures.

Geographic factors predict wild food and nonfood NTFP collection by households across four African countries.

Wild foods and other nonfood NTFPs are important for improving food security and supplementing incomes in rural peoples' livelihoods. However, studies on the importance of NTFPs to rural communities are often limited to a few select sites and are conducted in areas that are already known to have high rates of NTFP use. To address this, we examined the role of geographic and household level variables in determining whether a household would report collecting wild foods and other nonfood NTFP across 25 agro-ecological landscapes in Tanzania, Rwanda, Uganda and Ghana. The aim of this study was to contribute to the literature on NTFP collection in Africa and to better understand where people depend on these resources by drawing on a broad range of sites that were highly variable in geographic characteristics as well as rates of NTFP collection to provide a better understanding of the determinants of NTFP collection. We found that geographic factors, such as the presence of forests, non-forest natural areas like grasslands and shrublands, and lower population density significantly predict whether a household will report collecting NTFP, and that these factors have greater explanatory power than household characteristics.

Bark and latex harvesting short-term impact on native tree species reproduction.

The bark and the latex of plants constitute non-timber forest products (NTFPs) of medicinal and economic value that are widely harvested throughout the world. Bark and latex harvesting impacts on plant reproduction are controversial in the literature. Some species are negatively impacted, some do not show any response, and others may exhibit higher flower and fruit production after harvesting. In areas of rainforests and cerrado (tropical savanna) in northeastern Brazil, local people intensely remove the bark of Himatanthus drasticus (for latex collection) and Stryphnodendron rotundifolium for medicinal purposes. We aimed to investigate the short-term impact of harvesting upon reproductive effort of tree species, using those species as models. We assumed that bark harvesting negatively interferes in the reproductive capacity of plant species. Individuals of both species were harvested 2 months before blooming (treated) and the production of reproductive structures, physical characteristics of fruits and seeds, and the pre-emergent reproductive success were compared between treated and control (intact) individuals. All parameters of H. drasticus declined after bark removal, except pollen and ovule production. The only reproductive parameters of S. rotundifolium that were negatively affected were pollen and ovule production, and the pre-emergent reproductive success was higher in treatment individuals. We discuss the differences found between the species regarding responses to harvesting. Our results show that harvesting have short-term effects upon reproduction and may impair gene flow by affecting pollination and seed dispersal of tree species.

Beliefs about the Potential Impacts of Exploiting Non-Timber Forest Products Predict Voluntary Participation in Monitoring.

Harvesting and trading non-timber forest products is advocated as a win-win strategy for conservation and development, yet it can produce negative ecological and socioeconomic impacts. Hence, monitoring exploitation outcomes is essential, and participatory monitoring has been suggested to be the most suitable approach. Among possible approaches, participatory monitoring is preferred because it is likely to increase people's awareness and beliefs regarding impacts or potential impacts, thus inducing behavioral changes, although the evidence in this regard is contradictory. We therefore evaluated whether people's beliefs about the potential ecological and socioeconomic impacts of non-timber forest product exploitation increased their likelihood of volunteering to monitor. We studied a community of forest inhabitants in the Brazilian Amazon who harvested and traded a commercially important non-timber forest product. Two methods of data gathering were employed: (i) a survey of 166 adults (51 households) to evaluate people's beliefs and their stated intention to engage in four different monitoring tasks and (ii) four pilot monitoring tasks to evaluate who actually participated. Based on mixed-effects regressions, the results indicated that beliefs regarding both types of impacts could predict participation in certain tasks, although gender, age and schooling were occasionally stronger predictors. On average, people had stronger beliefs about potential socioeconomic impacts than about potential ecological impacts, with the former also predicting participation in ecological data gathering. This finding reinforces the importance of monitoring both types of impacts to help achieve the win-win outcomes originally proposed by non-timber forest product trade initiatives.

What are the socioeconomic implications of the value chain of biodiversity products? A case study in Northeastern Brazil.

The trade in biodiversity products has gained increasing importance in conservation and livelihood strategies. The aim of this study is to describe and analyze the socioeconomic aspects and dynamics of the production and commercialization of two important products of Brazilian biodiversity from the fruits of Caryocar coriaceum Wittm. and Dimorphandra gardneriana Tul. Interviews were conducted with who were involved in the various stages of value chains. Data were analyzed under an analytical/descriptive approach. It was found that the two value chains under study, although they share the same production environment and workforce, are different models of the commercial appropriation of the forest environment: one is related to local traditions, whereas the other seeks to meet an industry-related demand originating from a multinational pharmaceutical company. Harvesters become highly dependent on the trends imposed by these markets. Thus, it is clear that promoting these products as a conservation strategy requires an understanding of how their value chains arise, are established, and operate.

Indigenous Children's Knowledge About Non-timber Forest Products in Suriname.

Childhood and adolescence are important life stages for the acquisition of knowledge about non-timber forest products (NTFPs). We show at which stage in life traditional plant knowledge is learned and analyze whether cross-cultural ethnobotanical knowledge transmission takes place. We evaluate whether the degree of forest dependency influences ethnobotanical knowledge by comparing two indigenous communities in Suriname. Traditional knowledge was documented and vouchers collected during forest walks with adult informants. Questionnaires were completed by 74 schoolchildren (age 4 to 14) to capture their knowledge of names and uses of nine important NTFPs. We tested for knowledge differences by ethnicity and NTFP categories. Local names for NTFPs were analyzed to determine cross-cultural transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge. Children from the forest-dependent Trio community (n = 23) possessed similar knowledge of NTFPs as their more urbanized peers from Apoera (n = 51). NTFP uses were acquired at an earlier age than plant names. Food and commercial NTFP uses were better known than medicinal plant uses. Cross-cultural transfer of knowledge occurred between the two communities. NTFP knowledge of children appeared to be influenced more by the time they spent within the forest, either walking to school or walking to agricultural plots, than by the level of forest dependency or acculturation.

De jeugd en pubertijd zijn belangrijke levensfasen voor het verwerven van kennis over Niet-Hout Bosproducten (NTFP's) bij bewoners van het Amazonegebied. Dit onderzoek had als doel te achterhalen in welke levensjaren traditionele plantenkennis wordt toegeëigend en of er ethnobotanische kennis wordt uitgewisseld tussen twee Inheemse gemeenschappen in Suriname. Verwacht werd dat de afhankelijkheid van het bos de hoeveelheid ethnobotanische kennis beïnvloedt. Tijdens boswandelingen met volwassen informanten is traditionele kennis over NTFPs gedocumenteerd en zijn er botanische specimens verzameld. Door 74 schoolgaande kinderen (4 tot 14 jaar) zijn vragenlijsten ingevuld om hun kennis te achterhalen over lokale namen en toepassingen van negen belangrijke NTFP soorten. Het verschil in kennis werd vergeleken tussen twee ethnische groepen en NTFP-categorieën (eetbaar en medicinaal). Lokale namen voor NTFP's werden geanalyseerd om overdracht van ethnobotanische kennis tussen de gemeenschappen te bepalen. Tegen de verwachting in hadden kinderen uit de bosafhankelijke Trio-gemeenschap (n = 23) dezelfde kennis over NTFP's als de meer verstedelijkte kinderen uit Apoera (n = 51). NTFP-toepassingen waren op jongere leeftijd beter bekend dan plantennamen. Eetbare en commerciële bosproducten waren beter bekend dan medicinale planten. Overdracht van kennis vond plaats tussen de twee gemeenschappen. De NTFP-kennis van kinderen bleek meer beïnvloed te worden door de tijd die ze in het bos besteden, dan door het niveau van bosafhankelijkheid of acculturatie.

A fungal perspective on conservation biology.

Hitherto fungi have rarely been considered in conservation biology, but this is changing as the field moves from addressing single species issues to an integrative ecosystem-based approach. The current emphasis on biodiversity as a provider of ecosystem services throws the spotlight on the vast diversity of fungi, their crucial roles in terrestrial ecosystems, and the benefits of considering fungi in concert with animals and plants. We reviewed the role of fungi in ecosystems and composed an overview of the current state of conservation of fungi. There are 5 areas in which fungi can be readily integrated into conservation: as providers of habitats and processes important for other organisms; as indicators of desired or undesired trends in ecosystem functioning; as indicators of habitats of conservation value; as providers of powerful links between human societies and the natural world because of their value as food, medicine, and biotechnological tools; and as sources of novel tools and approaches for conservation of megadiverse organism groups. We hope conservation professionals will value the potential of fungi, engage mycologists in their work, and appreciate the crucial role of fungi in nature.

Declining Use of Wild Resources by Indigenous Peoples of the Ecuadorian Amazon.

Wild product harvesting by forest-dwelling peoples, including hunting, fishing, forest product collection and timber harvesting, is believed to be a major threat to the biodiversity of tropical forests worldwide. Despite this threat, few studies have attempted to quantify these activities across time or across large spatial scales. We use a unique longitudinal household survey (n = 480) to describe changes in these activities over time in 32 indigenous communities from five ethnicities in the northern Ecuadorian Amazon. To provide insight into the drivers of these changes, we also estimate multilevel statistical models of these activities as a function of household and community characteristics. These analyses reveal that participation in hunting, fishing, and forest product collection is high but declining across time and across ethnicities, with no evidence for a parallel decline in resource quality. However, participation in timber harvesting did not significantly decline and there is evidence of a decline in resource quality. Multilevel statistical models additionally reveal that household and community characteristics such as ethnicity, demographic characteristics, wealth, livelihood diversification, access to forest, participation in conservation programs and exposure to external markets are significant predictors of wild product harvesting. These characteristics have changed over time but cannot account for declining participation in resource harvesting. This finding suggests that participation is declining due to changes in the regional-scale social and economic context, including urbanization and the expansion of government infrastructure and services. The lesson for conservationists is that macro-scale social and economic conditions can drive reductions in wild product harvesting even in the absence of successful conservation interventions.

A framework for assessing supply-side wildlife conservation.

Market-based, supply-side interventions such as domestication, cultivation, and wildlife farming have been proposed as legal substitutes for wild-collected plants and animals in the marketplace. Based on the literature, we devised a list of the conditions under which supply-side interventions may yield positive conservation outcomes. We applied it to the trade of the orchid Rhynchostylis gigantea, a protected ornamental plant. We conducted a survey of R. gigantea at Jatujak Market in Bangkok, Thailand. Farmed (legal) and wild (illegal, protected) specimens of R. gigantea were sold side-by-side at market. These results suggest farmed specimens are not being substituted for wild plants in the marketplace. For any given set of physical plant characteristics (size, condition, flowers), the origin of the plants (wild vs. farmed) did not affect price. For all price classes, farmed plants were of superior quality to wild-collected plants on the basis of most physical variables. These results suggest wild and farmed specimens represent parallel markets and may not be substitutable goods. Our results with R. gigantea highlight a range of explanations for why supply-side interventions may lack effectiveness, for example, consumer preferences for wild-collected products and low financial incentives for farming. Our results suggest that market-based conservation strategies may not be effective by themselves and may be best utilized as supplements to regulation and education. This approach represents a broad, multidisciplinary evaluation of supply-side interventions that can be applied to other plant and animal species.

Ethnobotany in Angola: The contribution of late 19th century christian missionaries to the knowledge of medicinal wild plants.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Angola has an extraordinary plant diversity and a great ethnobotanical potential. However, there is a general lack of information about the first botanical explorations in the country and their contribution to the knowledge of the medicinal flora. AIM OF THE STUDY: The main aim of this study was to unveil the ethnobotanical legacy of José Maria Antunes and Eugène Dekindt, priests of the first Catholic mission in Huíla (Angola) and shed light on their contribution to the knowledge of medicinal wild plants of the country, including information on the uses, plant parts used, and preparation methods documented in the late 19th century. The findings are discussed considering recent ethnobotanical studies to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the historical and traditional uses of plants in Angola over the last two centuries. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Based on the information available in manuscripts and on the study of botanical collections preserved in herbaria of Portugal and Angola, we extracted relevant information about the species used in traditional medicine by the rural population of Huíla, the health conditions treated, and the mode of preparation and application. RESULTS: Our results revealed that Antunes and Dekindt conducted the first ethnobotanical study in Huíla, and documented a large number of medicinal wild plants. From these, we report 191 medicinal species, including 25 endemic and four introduced species, belonging to 56 plant families and 146 genera. Fabaceae family presents the highest richness of medicinal plants (39 taxa), followed by Rubiaceae (13), Asteraceae (10), and Apocynaceae (9). The illnesses reported were classified into 15 different categories, with the highest number of species (49) corresponding to unspecific conditions, such as general pains, chills, and fever. Thirty-seven species were reported for respiratory diseases, 31 for musculoskeletal problems, and 30 for digestive issues. Leaves were the most used plant part for medicinal purposes (84 species). Infusion was the most frequently described preparation method (40 species), followed by maceration (24 species), and powdering (36 species). CONCLUSIONS: The legacy of Antunes and Dekindt's work improves our understanding of Angola's botanical richness and traditional uses of plant resources. Our findings highlight the presence of unique medicinal resources in Angola, especially among endemic species, which hold the potential to improve the quality of life of rural communities. Moreover, our research underscores the lack of knowledge of medicinal species, emphasizing the risk of losing valuable historical information.