Examination of common and unique brain regions for atypical reading and math: a meta-analysis.

The purpose of this study is to identify consistencies across functional neuroimaging studies regarding common and unique brain regions/networks for individuals with reading difficulties (RD) and math difficulties (MD) compared to typically developing (TD) individuals. A systematic search of the literature, utilizing multiple databases, yielded 116 functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography studies that met the criteria. Coordinates that directly compared TD with either RD or MD were entered into GingerALE (Brainmap.org). An activation likelihood estimate (ALE) meta-analysis was conducted to examine common and unique brain regions for RD and MD. Overall, more studies examined RD (n = 96) than MD (n = 20). Across studies, overactivation for reading and math occurred in the right insula and inferior frontal gyrus for atypically developing (AD) > TD comparisons, albeit in slightly different areas of these regions; however, inherent threshold variability across imaging studies could diminish overlying regions. For TD > AD comparisons, there were no similar or overlapping brain regions. Results indicate there were domain-specific differences for RD and MD; however, there were some similarities in the ancillary recruitment of executive functioning skills. Theoretical and practical implications for researchers and educators are discussed.

The impact of morphological density on reading comprehension in Arabic: A comparison between typically developing and children with reading disabilities.

This study examined the influence of morphological density on reading comprehension in Arabic and whether this influence differs between typical and children with reading disabilities. Morphological density in Arabic is a text feature that refers to using bound morphemes, creating dense words with more morphemes. The participants were 182 fifth-graders, both typical and children with reading disabilities. Children were assessed in reading comprehension by reading texts with low- or high-morphological density. Findings revealed that overall morphological density impacted reading comprehension performance. That is, scores were found to be higher while reading low-density text than high-density text. Moreover, an interaction of morphological density condition by reading proficiency showed no density text effect among typical developing readers. However, a difference was obtained in the children with reading disabilities whereas low-morphological density text score was higher than the score of high-morphological density text. The study highlights the importance of morphological awareness in reading comprehension in Arabic, extending that morphological density plays an important role in this process. The results are discussed in light of the lexical quality hypothesis and simple view of reading model. The findings imply the need of explicit morphological instruction for dense morphological forms.

Improving English reading fluency and comprehension for children with reading fluency disabilities.

In the English language, students who read words accurately but have impairments in reading fluency are under-studied. The associated difficulties they have with comprehending text make it particularly important to delineate effective interventions for these students. Counter to suggestions that these readers need interventions focused on text reading, we examined the effects of a decoding-focused intervention. The intervention targeted decoding-related skills, including speeded training on sublexical spelling patterns. We examined the efficacy of this program for students with fluency-defined disabilities, and compared gains to those for students with accuracy-defined disabilities. In the initial phase of the program, readers with fluency-defined disabilities made greater gains in fluency, while readers with accuracy-defined disabilities made larger gains in word reading accuracy. The mean fluency score for readers with fluency-defined disabilities came within the average range across the intervention, as did reading comprehension for both groups. Readers' mastery on speeded learning of sublexical spelling patterns predicted unique variance in fluency outcomes, beyond variance accounted for by pre-test fluency and word reading accuracy. The results support intervention approaches focused on decoding-related skills for students who have fluency-defined disabilities and are consistent with theories of reading fluency that identify a role for automaticity with sublexical spelling patterns.

How you read affects what you gain: Individual differences in the functional organization of the reading system predict intervention gains in children with reading disabilities.

There is now considerable evidence regarding the types of interventions that are effective at remediating reading disabilities on average. It is generally unclear, however, what predicts the magnitude of individual-level change following a given intervention. We examine new predictors of intervention gains that are theoretically grounded in computational models of reading and focus on individual differences in the functional organization of the reading system. Specifically, we estimate the extent to which children with reading disabilities (n=118 3rd-4th graders) rely on two sources of information during an oral word reading task - print-speech correspondences and semantic imageability - before and after a phonologically-weighted intervention. We show that children who relied more on print-speech regularities and less on imageability pre-intervention had better intervention gains. In parallel, children who over the course of the intervention exhibited greater increases in their reliance on print-speech correspondences and greater decreases in their reliance on imageability had better intervention outcomes. Importantly, these two factors were differentially related to specific reading task outcomes, with greater reliance on print-speech correspondences associated with pseudoword naming, while (lesser) reliance on imageability related to word reading and comprehension. We discuss the implications of these findings for theoretical models of reading acquisition and educational practice.

Theory-driven classification of reading difficulties from fMRI data using Bayesian latent-mixture models.

Decades of research have led to several competing theories regarding the neural contributors to impaired reading. But how can we know which theory (or theories) identifies the types of markers that indeed differentiate between individuals with reading disabilities (RD) and their typically developing (TD) peers? To answer this question, we propose a new analytical tool for theory evaluation and comparison, grounded in the Bayesian latent-mixture modeling framework. We start by constructing a series of latent-mixture classification models, each reflecting one existing theoretical claim regarding the neurofunctional markers of RD (highlighting network-level differences in either mean activation, inter-subject heterogeneity, inter-region variability, or connectivity). Then, we run each model on fMRI data alone (i.e., while models are blind to participants' behavioral status), which enables us to interpret the fit between a model's classification of participants and their behavioral (known) RD/TD status as an estimate of its explanatory power. Results from n=127 adolescents and young adults (RD: n=59; TD: n=68) show that models based on network-level differences in mean activation and heterogeneity failed to differentiate between TD and RD individuals. In contrast, classifications based on variability and connectivity were significantly associated with participants' behavioral status. These findings suggest that differences in inter-region variability and connectivity may be better network-level markers of RD than mean activation or heterogeneity (at least in some populations and tasks). More broadly, the results demonstrate the promise of latent-mixture modeling as a theory-driven tool for evaluating different theoretical claims regarding neural contributors to language disorders and other cognitive traits.

Anxiety and depression among Chinese children with and without reading disabilities.

This study aims to compare anxiety and depression among male and female Chinese children with and without reading disabilities (RDs) and to examine the diverse impacts of anxiety and depression on children's reading comprehension. A total of 132 Chinese children from third to sixth grade living in Taiwan were recruited; half had RD, and the other half were typically developing children. Our results from the first analysis revealed that the anxiety level of female children with RD was significantly higher than that of the other three groups of participants, while the depression level of typically developing children was significantly lower than that of children with RD in general. Additionally, our results regarding the predictive abilities of gender and anxiety for reading comprehension as well as the moderating effect of gender on the ability of anxiety to predict reading comprehension were all statistically significant for the typically developing group but not the RD group. These differences between these two groups were further confirmed by multi-group analysis. Our results enhance the existing knowledge on Chinese children with RD and can increase practitioners' awareness of the possibility of higher levels of anxious and depressive symptoms among these children.

Co-occurrence of Reading Disabilities and Math Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis.

Despite the importance of identifying individuals with reading disabilities, existing operational definitions of reading disability do not result in reliable identification. A large part of the problem arises from measurement error when a cut-point is imposed on a continuous distribution, especially for low base-rate conditions. One way to reduce measurement error is to include additional predictors in reading disability models. The present study examined co-occurring math disability as a possible additional criterion for predicting reading disability. Meta-analysis was used to examine the probability of individuals with reading disability also having a comorbid math disability. Possible moderators including age, severity of disability, and language were examined. The main result was an average weighted odds ratio of 2.12, 95% confidence interval [1.76, 2.55], indicating that students with a math disability are just over two times more likely to also have a reading disability than those without a math disability. Implications of the results are discussed.

Home and Clinical Literacy Practices for Children With Cleft Lip and Palate.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine experiences and practices related to supporting literacy development and preventing reading difficulties in children with cleft lip and/or palate (CL/P). METHODS: Via online surveys, 67 respondents including 35 parents/guardians of children with CL/P and 32 speech-language pathologists (SLPs) answered questions about home literacy practices, clinical practices, and perceptions of SLPs' role in literacy. RESULTS: The variability in responses highlights both the positive contributions of parents/guardians and SLPs in supporting literacy development and preventing reading disabilities in children with cleft and the need for increased education and efforts to meet their literacy needs.

White Matter Alterations in Infants at Risk for Developmental Dyslexia.

Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a heritable condition characterized by persistent difficulties in learning to read. White matter alterations in left-lateralized language areas, particularly in the arcuate fasciculus (AF), have been observed in DD, and diffusion properties within the AF correlate with (pre-)reading skills as early as kindergarten. However, it is unclear how early these alterations can be observed. We investigated white matter structure in 14 infants with (FHD+; ages 6.6-17.6 months) and 18 without (FHD-; ages 5.1-17.6 months) familial risk for DD. Diffusion scans were acquired during natural sleep, and early language skills were assessed. Tractography for bilateral AF was reconstructed using manual and automated methods, allowing for independent validation of results. Fractional anisotropy (FA) was calculated at multiple nodes along the tracts for more precise localization of group differences. The analyses revealed significantly lower FA in the left AF for FHD+ compared with FHD- infants, particularly in the central portion of the tract. Moreover, expressive language positively correlated with FA across groups. Our results demonstrate that atypical brain development associated with DD is already present within the first 18 months of life, suggesting that the deficits associated with DD may result from altered structural connectivity in left-hemispheric regions.

Socially Desirable Responding and College Students with Dyslexia: Implications for the Assessment of Anxiety and Depression.

We investigated self-reported depressive and anxiety-related symptoms among college students with dyslexia, with emphasis on the role of socially desirable responding (SDR) in understanding these reports. Analyses included examination of differences in self-reported depressive symptoms, anxiety-related symptoms, and SDR. We also examined the relationships among SDR, depressive symptoms, anxiety-related symptoms, and reading skills. Participants with dyslexia demonstrated significantly higher SDR than did participants without dyslexia, and higher SDR was significantly associated with lower self-reported depressive and anxiety-related symptoms. Moreover, higher SDR was significantly associated with lower reading skills. There was no group difference on anxiety-related symptoms, but participants with dyslexia had higher depressive symptoms than did participants without dyslexia when SDR was controlled. Implications for the assessment of anxiety and depression among college students with dyslexia are discussed. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Early intervention for children at risk for reading disabilities: The impact of grade at intervention and individual differences on intervention outcomes.

Across multiple schools in three sites, the impact of grade-at-intervention was evaluated for children at risk or meeting criteria for reading disabilities. A multiple-component reading intervention with demonstrated efficacy was offered to small groups of children in 1st, 2nd, or 3rd grade. In a quasi-experimental design, 172 children received the Triple-Focus Program (PHAST + RAVE-O), and 47 were control participants. Change during intervention and 1-3 years later (6-8 testing points), and the influence of individual differences in predicting outcomes, were assessed using reading and reading-related repeated measures. Intervention children out-performed control children at posttest on all 14 outcomes, with average effect sizes (Cohen's d) on standardized measures of .80 and on experimental measures of 1.69. On foundational word reading skills (standardized measures), children who received intervention earlier, in 1st and 2nd grade, made gains relative to controls almost twice that of children receiving intervention in 3rd grade. At follow-up, the advantage of 1st grade intervention was even clearer: First graders continued to grow at faster rates over the follow-up years than 2nd graders on six of eight key reading outcomes. For some outcomes with metalinguistic demands beyond the phonological, however, a posttest advantage was revealed for 2nd grade Triple participants and for 3rd grade Triple participants relative to controls. Estimated IQ predicted growth during intervention on seven of eight outcomes. Growth during follow-up was predicted by vocabulary and visual sequential memory. These findings provide evidence on the importance of early intensive evidence-based intervention for reading problems in the primary grades.

The Effect of Reading Interventions among Poor Readers at a Forensic Psychiatric Clinic.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of a short period, 15 sessions, of reading interventions in a sample of adult forensic psychiatric patients: 61 patients with decoding difficulties - 44 in the experimental group and 17 in the comparison group - with an average age of 31.6 participated. Of these, 36% were female, and 29% had an immigrant background. The participants carried out a battery of reading tests. The results in the experimental group showed a medium effect size (d = .36 to .76) on all reading tests between pre- and post-test. The comparison group, however, showed no gain at all between the test occasions. The results indicate that a proportionally low reading intervention effort produces improvement in reading. This study discusses the importance of including reading assessment and offering remediation in order to reach optimal future social adjustment for patients in forensic clinics.

The DCDC2 intron 2 deletion impairs illusory motion perception unveiling the selective role of magnocellular-dorsal stream in reading (dis)ability.

Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a heritable neurodevelopmental reading disorder that could arise from auditory, visual, and cross-modal integration deficits. A deletion in intron 2 of the DCDC2 gene (hereafter DCDC2d) increases the risk for DD and related phenotypes. In this study, first we report that illusory visual motion perception-specifically processed by the magnocellular-dorsal (M-D) stream-is impaired in children with DD compared with age-matched and reading-level controls. Second, we test for the specificity of the DCDC2d effects on the M-D stream. Children with DD and DCDC2d need significantly more contrast to process illusory motion relative to their counterpart without DCDC2d and to age-matched and reading-level controls. Irrespective of the genetic variant, children with DD perform normally in the parvocellular-ventral task. Finally, we find that DCDC2d is associated with the illusory motion perception also in adult normal readers, showing that the M-D deficit is a potential neurobiological risk factor of DD rather than a simple effect of reading disorder. Our findings demonstrate, for the first time, that a specific neurocognitive dysfunction tapping the M-D stream is linked with a well-defined genetic susceptibility.

Do Processing Patterns of Strengths and Weaknesses Predict Differential Treatment Response?

OBJECTIVE: No previous empirical study has investigated whether the LD identification decisions of proposed methods to operationalize processing strengths and weaknesses (PSW) approaches for LD identification are associated with differential treatment response. We investigated whether the identification decisions of the concordance/discordance model (C/DM; Hale & Fiorello, 2004) and Cross Battery Assessment approach (XBA method; Flanagan, Ortiz, & Alfonso, 2007) were consistent and whether they predicted intervention response beyond that accounted for by pretest performance on measures of reading. METHOD: Psychoeducational assessments were administered at pretest to 203 4th graders with low reading comprehension and individual results were utilized to identify students who met LD criteria according to the C/DM and XBA methods and students who did not. Resulting group status permitted an investigation of agreement for identification methods and whether group status at pretest (LD or not LD) was associated with differential treatment response to an intensive reading intervention. RESULTS: The LD identification decisions of the XBA and C/DM demonstrated poor agreement with one another (κ = -.10). Comparisons of posttest performance for students who met LD criteria and those who did not meet were largely null, with small effect sizes across all measures. CONCLUSIONS: LD status, as identified through the C/DM and XBA approaches, was not associated with differential treatment response and did not contribute educationally meaningful information about how students would respond to intensive reading intervention. These results do not support the value of cognitive assessment utilized in this way as part of the LD identification process.

A Century of Progress: Reading Interventions for Students in Grades 4-12, 1914-2014.

The history of research on interventions for struggling readers in Grades 4 through 12 dates back to 19th-century case studies of seemingly intelligent children who were unable to learn to read. Physicians, psychologists, educators, and others were determined to help them. In the process, they launched a century of research on a wide variety of approaches to reading intervention. As shown in this systematic narrative review, much has changed over time in the conceptualization of reading interventions and the methods used to determine their efficacy in improving outcomes for struggling readers. Building on the knowledge gathered over the past 100 years, researchers and practitioners are well-poised to continue to make progress in developing and testing reading interventions over the next 100 years.

The attentional blink in typically developing and reading-disabled children.

This study's research question was whether selective visual attention, and specifically the attentional blink (AB) as operationalized by a dual target rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) task, can explain individual differences in word reading (WR) and reading-related phonological performances in typically developing children and reading-disabled subgroups. A total of 407 Dutch school children (Grades 3-6) were classified either as typically developing (n = 302) or as belonging to one of three reading-disabled subgroups: reading disabilities only (RD-only, n = 69), both RD and attention problems (RD+ADHD, n = 16), or both RD and a specific language impairment (RD+SLI, n = 20). The RSVP task employed alphanumeric stimuli that were presented in two blocks. Standardized Dutch tests were used to measure WR, phonemic awareness (PA), and alphanumeric rapid naming (RAN). Results indicate that, controlling for PA and RAN performance, general RSVP task performance contributes significant unique variance to the prediction of WR. Specifically, consistent group main effects for the parameter of AB(minimum) were found, whereas there were no AB-specific effects (i.e., AB(width) and AB(amplitude)) except for the RD+SLI group. Finally, there was a group by measurement interaction, indicating that the RD-only and comorbid groups are differentially sensitive for prolonged testing sessions. These results suggest that more general factors involved in RSVP processing may explain the group differences found.

Are Child Cognitive Characteristics Strong Predictors of Responses to Intervention? A Meta-Analysis.

We conducted a meta-analysis of 28 studies comprising 39 samples to ask the question, "What is the magnitude of the association between various baseline child cognitive characteristics and response to reading intervention?" Studies were located via literature searches, contact with researchers in the field, and review of references from the National Reading Panel Report. Eligible participant populations included at-risk elementary school children enrolled in the third grade or below. Effects were analyzed using a shifting unit of analysis approach within three statistical models: cognitive characteristics predicting growth curve slope (Model 1, mean r = .31), gain (Model 2, mean r = .21), or postintervention reading controlling for preintervention reading (Model 3, mean r = .15). Effects were homogeneous within each model when effects were aggregated within study. The small size of the effects calls into question the practical significance and utility of using cognitive characteristics for prediction of response when baseline reading is available.

Why Intensive Interventions Matter: Longitudinal Studies of Adolescents With Reading Disabilities and Poor Reading Comprehension.

We describe findings from a series of longitudinal studies utilizing a response to intervention framework implemented over 3 years with students in Grades 6 through 8 with reading disabilities and poor reading comprehension. Students were identified based on reading comprehension scores in Grade 5 (n = 1,083) and then randomized to treatment or comparison conditions. Beginning in sixth grade, students assigned to intervention were provided treatment for 1, 2, or 3 years based on their response to instruction in each preceding year. Screening procedures, progress monitoring tools, tiers of instruction, and findings from each year of the study are reported. Additional studies investigating reading and behavioral outcomes through multi-level, growth modeling, and studies of the cognitive and neural correlates of inadequate response are also reported.

"Waiting to Fail" Redux: Understanding Inadequate Response to Intervention.

This introduction to the special issue provides an overview of the promise, but also the ongoing challenges, related to Response to Intervention (RTI) as a means of both prevention and identification of reading disabilities. We conclude by describing the articles in this special issue and considering their implications for future research.

Identifying students with dyslexia: exploration of current assessment methods.

Early identification plays a crucial role in providing timely support to students with learning disabilities, such as dyslexia, in order to overcome their reading difficulties. However, there is significant variability in the methods used for identifying dyslexia. This study aimed to explore and understand the practices of dyslexia identification in the UK. A survey was conducted among 274 dyslexia professionals, including educational psychologists and dyslexia specialists, to investigate the types of assessments they employ, their approach to utilizing assessment data, their decision-making processes, and their conceptualization of dyslexia. Additionally, the study examined whether these professionals held any misconceptions or myths associated with dyslexia. Analysis of the survey data revealed substantial variability in how professionals conceptualize dyslexia, as well as variations in assessment methods. Furthermore, a significant proportion of the survey respondents subscribed to one or more misconceptions regarding dyslexia; the most common misconception identified among professionals was the belief that children with dyslexia read letters in reverse order. The findings highlight the need for standardized approaches to dyslexia identification and debunking prevailing misconceptions. The implications of these findings are discussed, emphasizing the importance of informed policy and practice in supporting students with dyslexia. Recommendations are provided to enhance consistency and accuracy in dyslexia identification, with the aim of facilitating early intervention and support for affected students.