The successful use of a search strategy improves with visuospatial working memory in 2- to 4.5-year-olds.

Using spatial cues such as shape, orientation, and pattern aids visuospatial working memory because it allows strategies that reduce the load on this cognitive resource. One such strategy, namely taking advantage of patterned spatial distributions, remains understudied to date. This strategy demands keeping track of already-searched locations and excluding them from further search and so correlates with visuospatial working memory. The use of such strategies should, in principle, develop in early childhood, but because most studies focus on chunking, the development of other strategies reducing the load on working memory is understudied in young children. Therefore, in this study we tested whether children aged 2 to 4.5 years (N = 97) could take advantage of spatial cues in their search and whether this ability correlated with their age, verbal ability, and visuospatial working memory. The results showed that the ability to use a patterned spatial distribution (searching a row of locations from one side to the other instead of a random search) significantly improved with visuospatial working memory but not with age or verbal ability. These results suggest that visuospatial abilities may rapidly develop from 2 to 4.5 years of age, and given their impact on later mathematic achievement, demand increased attention in cognitive developmental research and early childhood education.

Preschool language and visuospatial skills respectively predict multiplication and addition/subtraction skills in middle school children.

A converging body of evidence from neuroimaging, behavioral, and neuropsychology studies suggests that different arithmetic operations rely on distinct neuro-cognitive processes: while addition and subtraction may rely more on visuospatial reasoning, multiplication would depend more on verbal abilities. In this paper, we tested this hypothesis in a longitudinal study measuring language and visuospatial skills in 358 preschoolers, and testing their mental calculation skills at the beginning of middle school. Language skills at 5.5 years significantly predicted multiplication, but not addition nor subtraction scores at 11.5 years. Conversely, early visuospatial skills predicted addition and subtraction, but not multiplication scores. These results provide strong support for the existence of a double dissociation in mental arithmetic operations, and demonstrate the existence of long-lasting links between language/visuospatial skills and specific calculation abilities.

Cognitive performances better identify fallers than mobility assessment among older adults with fear of falling.

BACKGROUND: Half of the people with fear of falling (FoF) are non-fallers, and the reason why some people considered non-fallers are afraid of falling is unknown, but reduced mobility or cognition, or both concurrently must be considered as potential risk factors. AIM: The study aimed to determine if mobility and/or cognitive abilities could identify people with a history of falls in older adults with FoF. METHODS: Twenty-six older adults with FoF participated in this study. Full cognitive and mobility assessments were performed assessing global cognitive impairments (MoCA score < 26), executive functions, memory, processing speed, visuospatial skills, mobility impairment (TUG time > 13.5 s), gait, balance and physical capacity. Information about falls occurring during the year prior to the inclusion was collected. Logistic regression analyses were performed to explore the association between falls and cognitive and mobility abilities. RESULTS: No significant differences in age, sex, level of education or body mass index were detected between fallers and non-fallers. Cognitive impairments (MoCA score < 26) distinguished between fallers and non-fallers (p = 0.038; R2 = 0.247). Among specific cognitive functions, visuospatial skills distinguished between fallers and non-fallers (p = 0.027; R2 = 0.258). Mobility impairments (TUG time > 13.5 s), gait, balance and physical capacity were not related to past falls. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: In older adults with FoF, global cognitive deficits detected by the MoCA are important factors related to falls and more particularly visuospatial skills seem to be among the most implicated functions. These functions could be targeted in multifactorial interventions.

Cognitive function after surgery with regional or general anesthesia: A population-based study.

INTRODUCTION: Our aim was to examine whether surgery with regional anesthesia (RA) is associated with accelerated long-term cognitive decline comparable with that previously reported after general anesthesia (GA). METHODS: Longitudinal cognitive function was analyzed in a cohort of 1819 older adults. Models assessed the rate of change in global and domain-specific cognition over time in participants exposed to RA or GA. RESULTS: When compared with those unexposed to anesthesia, the postoperative rate of change of the cognitive global z-score was greater in those exposed to both RA (difference in annual decline of -0.041, P = .011) and GA (-0.061, P < .001); these rates did not differ. In analysis of the domain-specific scores, an accelerated decline in memory was observed after GA (-0.065, P < .001) but not RA (-0.011, P = .565). CONCLUSIONS: Older adults undergoing surgery with RA experience decline of global cognition similar to those receiving GA; however, memory was not affected.

Development of SNARC and distance effects and their relation to mathematical and visuospatial abilities.

The current experiment measured symbolic SNARC (Spatial-Numeric Association of Response Codes) and distance effects in school-aged children and investigated the relation between these measures and visuospatial skills and mathematics ability. In the experiment, 6-, 7-, and 8-year-olds performed a magnitude-relevant SNARC task, in which they indicated whether a target number was less or greater than 5, as well as standardized tests of visuospatial skills (Developmental Test of Visual Perception-Second Edition, DTVP-2) and mathematics ability (Test of Early Mathematics Ability-Third Edition, TEMA-3). Consistent with previous research using numerical SNARC tasks with Western children, all age groups exhibited robust distance effects, and SNARC effects were observed only in 7- and 8-year-olds. Distance effects, but not SNARC effects, were moderately but significantly correlated with a subtest of the DTVP-2 measuring the ability to mentally manipulate objects in space but no other subtest. These data suggest that mental orientation abilities, but perhaps not visuospatial skills involved in visual perception and visuomotor coordination, are related to some aspects of mental number line development. Nevertheless, no relation was observed between SNARC or distance effects and mathematics ability. This result is consistent with previous developmental studies investigating the association between SNARC and math skill. However, these data are inconsistent with most experiments assessing the relationship between distance effect strength and math-a difference that can likely be attributed to the fact that a magnitude-relevant SNARC task was employed as opposed to a traditional SNARC parity task.

Explaining the relationship between number line estimation and mathematical achievement: The role of visuomotor integration and visuospatial skills.

Performance on number line tasks, typically used as a measure of numerical representations, are reliably related to children's mathematical achievement. However, recent debate has questioned what precisely performance on the number line estimation task measures. Specifically, there has been a suggestion that this task may measure not only numerical representations but also proportional judgment skills; if this is the case, then individual differences in visuospatial skills, not just the precision of numerical representations, may explain the relationship between number line estimation and mathematical achievement. The current study investigated the relationships among visuospatial skills, visuomotor integration, number line estimation, and mathematical achievement. In total, 77 children were assessed using a number line estimation task, a standardized measure of mathematical achievement, and tests of visuospatial skills and visuomotor integration. The majority of measures were significantly correlated. In addition, the relationship between one metric from the number line estimation task (R(2)LIN) and mathematical achievement was fully explained by visuomotor integration and visuospatial skill competency. These results have important implications for understanding what the number line task measures as well as the choice of number line metric for research purposes.

Cognitive deficits and course of recovery in transient global amnesia: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: Published evidence suggests that cognitive impairment during a TGA (transient global amnesia) spell may not be confined to episodic memory. We undertook a systematic review to determine the pattern of cognitive deficits during a TGA episode. As a secondary objective, we aimed to delineate the course of cognitive recovery. METHODS: MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL, and Google scholar were systematically searched up to October 2023. Observational controlled studies including 10 or more TGA patients (Hodges and Warlow criteria) were retrieved. Data from case-control, cross-sectional, and cohort studies were reviewed and qualitatively synthesized. RESULTS: Literature search yielded 1302 articles. After the screening of titles and abstracts, 115 full texts were retrieved and 17 of them were included in the present systematic review. During the acute phase, spatiotemporal disorientation, dense anterograde and variable retrograde amnesia, semantic memory retrieval difficulties, and working memory deficits comprised the neuropsychological profile of patients with TGA. Visuospatial abilities, attention and psychomotor speed, semantic memory, confrontation naming, and other measures of executive function (apart from semantic fluency and working memory) were consistently found normal. In the course of recovery, after the resolution of repetitive questioning, the restoration of spatiotemporal orientation follows, working memory and semantic memory retrieval ensue, while episodic memory impairment persists for longer. Meticulous evaluations may reveal subtle residual memory (especially recognition) deficits even after 24 h. CONCLUSIONS: Μemory impairment, spatiotemporal disorientation, and working memory deficits constitute the pattern of cognitive impairment during a TGA spell. Residual memory deficits may persist even after 24 h.

Neuropsychological factors associated with performance on the rey-osterrieth complex figure test in children with neurofibromatosis type 1.

Children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) are at considerable risk for cognitive difficulties, including visuospatial deficits and executive dysfunction. This study aimed to (1) assess the overall performance of children with NF1 on the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (RCFT) compared to unaffected siblings and (2) examine neuropsychological predictors of RCFT performance in children with NF1. A retrospective clinical audit was performed on neuropsychological records from a multidisciplinary NF1 Clinic in Australia. We searched for children that had completed an assessment between 2000 and 2015 which included the RCFT and other neuropsychological outcomes in this study. These included the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Judgment of Line Orientation (JLO), Tower of London test, Conners ADHD Scales, and the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). The study population consisted of 191 children with NF1 aged 6-16 years, and 55 unaffected siblings recruited from a separate study. Results revealed that 62% of children with NF1 performed at or below the first percentile on the RCFT copy, which was significantly worse than their unaffected siblings. Visuospatial skills, parent-rated executive abilities, ADHD symptoms, and intellectual skills all predicted poorer performance on the RCFT copy, however the best fitting multiple regression model only contained the JLO, BRIEF Metacognition Index, and chronological age. The JLO emerged as the strongest predictor of RCFT performance. This study provides evidence that visuospatial deficits are a key driver of reduced RCFT performance in NF1 and that executive skills as well as a younger age are also independent predictors of RCFT performance.

Visuospatial, oculomotor, and executive reading skills evolve in elementary school, and errors are significant: a topological RAN study.

We investigate the development of visuospatial and oculomotor reading skills in a cohort of elementary school children. Employing a longitudinal methodology, the study applies the Topological serial digit Rapid Automated Naming (Top-RAN) battery, which evaluates visuospatial reading skills leveraging metrics addressing crowding, distractors, and voluntary attention orientation. The participant pool comprises 142 students (66 males, 76 females), including 46 non-native speakers (21 males, 25 females), representing a diverse range of ethnic backgrounds. The Top-RAN dataset encompasses performance, error, and self-correction metrics for each subtest and student, underscoring the significance of these factors in the process of reading acquisition. Analytical methods include dimensionality reduction, clustering, and classification algorithms, consolidated into a Python package to facilitate reproducible results. Our results indicate that visuospatial reading abilities vary according to the task and demonstrate a marked evolution over time, as seen in the progressive decrease in execution times, errors, and self-corrections. This pattern supports the hypothesis that the growth of oculomotor, attentional, and executive skills is primarily fostered by educational experiences and maturation. This investigation provides valuable insights into the dynamic nature of these skills during pivotal educational stages.

Neuropsychological intervention in attention and visuospatial skills in two patients with Williams syndrome with different types of genetic deletion.

Williams Syndrome (WS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a distinctive physical, cognitive, and behavioral profile caused by a microdeletion in the q11.23 region of chromosome 7. The neuropsychological profile of WS is characterized by intellectual disability, hypersociability, and deficits, especially in attention and visuospatial skills. Our objective was to assess the effectiveness of a neuropsychological intervention program in attention and visuospatial skills in two patients with WS (aged 7 and 13 years old) with different types of deletion (1.5 and 1.8 Mb). Cognitive, behavioral, and adaptive abilities were evaluated through various neuropsychological tests and scales; the neuropsychological intervention program was subsequently applied, and we assessed its effectiveness. Both patients initially presented significant deficits in attention and visuospatial skills. After the program, we found improvements in attention and visuospatial skills. In addition, both patients had significant clinical advances and changes in adaptive behaviors (social and self-care). These findings suggest that this intervention program could improve attention processes, visuospatial skills, and some aspects of adaptive behavior in patients with WS, regardless of deletion size. Although the sample was small, limiting the generalizability of the results, we believe this program could be a helpful resource for professionals working with individuals with WS.

Mathematics performance, response time, and enjoyment of eighth-grade autistic students and their general education peers.

For autistic students receiving special education services, little is known about their relative strengths, weaknesses, and enjoyment across different math content areas; their overall math interest and persistence are also not well-studied. Using the 2017 eighth-grade National Assessment of Education Progress data, this study finds, relative to general education peers with the same math proficiency level, autistic students scored higher and exhibited faster speed in solving visuospatial problems (e.g. identifying figures), but scored lower on math word problems with complex language or social context. Autistic students reported a higher level of enjoyment in solving math problems related to finding areas of shapes or figures but a lower level of persistence than their non-autistic, general education peers. Our work points out the need to help autistic students overcome their weaknesses in word problems and develop their mathematical persistence.

Moderating effect of cognitive reserve on brain integrity and cognitive performance.

Background: Dementia syndrome is one of the most devastating conditions in older adults. As treatments to stop neurodegeneration become available, accurate and timely diagnosis will increase in importance. One issue is that cognitive performance sometimes does not match the corresponding level of neuropathology, affecting diagnostic accuracy. Cognitive reserve (CR), which can preserve cognitive function despite underlying neuropathology, explains at least some variability in cognitive performance. We examined the influence of CR proxies (education and occupational position) on the relationship between hippocampal or total gray matter volume and cognition. Methods: We used data from the Czech Brain Aging Study. Participants were clinically confirmed to be without dementia (n = 457, including subjective cognitive decline and amnestic mild cognitive impairment) or with dementia syndrome (n = 113). Results: For participants without dementia, higher education magnified the associations between (a) hippocampal volume and executive control (b = 0.09, p = 0.033), (b) total gray matter volume and language (b = 0.12, p < 0.001), and (c) total gray matter volume and memory (b = 0.08, p = 0.018). Similarly, higher occupational position magnified the association between total gray matter volume and (a) attention/working memory (b = 0.09, p = 0.009), (b) language (b = 0.13, p = 0.002), and (c) memory (b = 0.10, p = 0.013). For participants with dementia, the associations between hippocampal (b = -0.26, p = 0.024) and total gray matter (b = -0.28, p = 0.024) volume and visuospatial skills decreased in magnitude with higher education. Conclusion: We found that the association between brain volume and cognitive performance varies based on CR, with greater CR related to a stronger link between brain volume and cognition before, and a weaker link after, dementia diagnosis.

Do children with and without autism spectrum disorder use different visuospatial processing skills to perform the Rey-Osterrieth complex figure test?

Visuospatial organization abilities are closely related to other visuospatial processing skills, such as visuomotor coordination, perceptual abilities, mental rotation, and working memory (WM). One task that enables visuospatial organization abilities to be investigated is the Rey-Osterrieth complex figure test (ROCFT). When examining visuospatial functioning, individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have proved capable of operating both locally and globally, depending on the sub-domain embraced, with a preference for a locally-oriented processing of visuospatial information. The present research aimed to establish whether different underlying visuospatial skills might account for performance in the ROCFT in children and adolescents with ASD, compared with typically developing (TD), by considering the role of local/global visuospatial processing. The study involved 39 participants who have ASD without intellectual disability, and 57 TD aged 8-16 years. The participants were administered tasks assessing visuospatial organization abilities, manual dexterity, visual perception, mental rotation, spatial-sequential, spatial-simultaneous WM, and visuospatial processing. Our results suggest that manual dexterity and visuospatial processing similarly explain performance in both groups, while differences in visuospatial WM account for the two groups' visuospatial organization abilities. Spatial-simultaneous WM predicted performance in copy and recall conditions in the TD group but not in the ASD group, while spatial-sequential WM only did so in the latter group, reinforcing the tendency of children with ASD towards local bias in the visuospatial organization domain. The implications of these findings are discussed. LAY SUMMARY: The visuospatial organization abilities of children and adolescents with and without autism were compared, considering their underlying visuospatial skills. Visuospatial organization impairments emerged for children with autism, who differed from typically developing children in the underlying visuospatial skills involved. Given the crucial role of visuospatial organization abilities in everyday life, our results could inspire practitioners to develop training interventions that take into account the strengths and weaknesses of individuals with autism.

Toward an integrative model accounting for typical and atypical development of visuospatial short-term memory.

The origin of visuospatial short-term memory (STM) impairment is poorly investigated and is generally considered to be the result of a more global visuospatial deficit. However, previous studies suggest an important influence of two elements on performance in visuospatial STM tasks, the mode of presentation (i.e., simultaneous and sequential), and the visuospatial arrangement (structured vs. unstructured). With regards to a recent proposal, the aim of this study was to examine the development of the two modes of presentation and the visuospatial arrangement of visuospatial information in STM in a hundred typically developing participants aged from 4 years old to adults. Moreover, we also examined how the model explains the pattern of visuospatial STM deficit in two neurodevelopmental syndromes with different profiles in terms of STM abilities, namely Williams syndrome and Down syndrome. We found distinct performance for sequential and simultaneous presentation only from 11 years old with better performance in simultaneous than in sequential presentation mode and a sensitivity to visuospatial arrangement that increases with age. Both syndromes presented deficits at different levels, people with Williams syndrome for visuospatial arrangement and with Down syndrome for simultaneous visuospatial information in STM. The results demonstrate the importance to consider the influence of preexisting visuospatial knowledge on STM abilities. A two processing route model of STM is an interesting framework to interpret the different results.

Effects of longstanding degraded auditory signal on visuospatial, visuomotor, and visual attention skills in adults with hearing loss.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the consequences of long-term auditory deprivation on visuospatial functions, visuomotor functions, and visual attention skills in adults with early-onset hearing loss. METHODS: Fifteen adults with bilateral, early-onset (before age 3), severe-to-profound hearing loss who used spoken language participated in this study. Visuospatial (figure ground, form constancy, visual perception) and visuomotor functions (visuomotor integration, visual search) were examined using norm-referenced tests. Visual attention scales were examined using a computerized program, IVA plus continuous performance test. RESULTS: As a group, participants performed in the average range on visuospatial and visuomotor functions when compared to normative data presented in the test instruments. However, participants demonstrated below average performance on sustained visual attention. Duration of cochlear implant use positively correlated with one of the visual attention scales, namely visual speed. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of the current study suggest that adults with early-onset hearing loss may demonstrate difficulties in sustaining attention to visual information. Data also suggest that increased experience with cochlear implant may ameliorate deficits associated with visual attention. Future studies should explore challenges experienced by adults with early-onset hearing loss in their daily activities that may result from this deficit and intervention programs that may enhance visual attention skills.

Development of egocentric and allocentric spatial orientation abilities in children born preterm with very low birth weight.

BACKGROUND: Very low birth weight preterm infants show neuropsychological alterations in functions such as memory or visuospatial skills, although certain related functions, such as spatial orientation, have not been studied. OBJECTIVES: To compare children born preterm and at term between the ages of 5 and 7 years on egocentric and allocentric spatial orientation, and relate their performance to visuospatial skills, behavior, memory in daily environments, and perinatal risk factors. STUDY DESIGN: Observational cross-sectional study. SUBJECTS: 88 very low birth weight children born preterm and 59 controls. OUTCOME MEASURES: IQ (RIST), visuospatial skills (NEPSY II: Route Finding and Geometric Puzzles), spatial orientation (Egocentric and Allocentric Spatial Memory Test - Children's Version), behavior (BASC questionnaire for parents), memory in everyday environments (ECM-Q questionnaire for parents), and perinatal risk factors (collected from medical records). RESULTS: Children born preterm obtain significantly lower scores than controls on the RIST, Route Finding, and Allocentric Spatial Memory Tests. Although spatial orientation is related to other neuropsychological variables in both premature and control children, there is no meaningful association with behavior or daily memory in children born preterm. The perinatal risk factors that are associated the most with visuospatial and orientation problems are surgical procedures and peri- and intraventricular hemorrhages. CONCLUSIONS: Children born preterm with low birth weight present difficulties in their spatial orientation, and for this reason, we propose including these types of tasks in the usual neuropsychological evaluation.

Magnitude processing in populations with spina-bifida: The role of visuospatial and working memory processes.

People with Spina Bifida usually experience difficulties with mathematics. In a series of other developmental disorders, a magnitude processing deficit was considered to be the main source of subsequent difficulties in mathematics. The processing of magnitude could be numerical (which is the larger number) or non-numerical such as spatial (e.g., which is the longer?) or temporal (which one last longer?) for instance. However, no study yet has examined directly magnitude processes in a population with Spina Bifida. On the other hand, recent studies in people with genetic syndromes have suggested that visuospatial and working memory processes play an important role in magnitude processing, including number magnitude. Therefore, in this study we explored for the first time magnitude representation using several tasks with different visuospatial and working memory processing requirements, cognitive skills frequently impaired in Spina Bifida. Results showed children with SB presented a global magnitude processing deficit for non-numerical and numerical comparison tasks, but not in symbolic number magnitude tasks compared to controls. Importantly, visuospatial skills and working memory abilities could partially explain the differences between groups in comparison and estimation tasks. This study proposes that magnitude processing difficulties in children with SB could be due to higher cognitive factors such as visuospatial and working memory processes.

Heart Rate Variability and Cognitive Function: A Systematic Review.

Background: Autonomic dysfunctions may precede the development of cognitive impairment, but the connection between these dimensions is unclear. This systematic review aims to analyze the relationship between heart rate variability (HRV) and cognitive functions. Methods: The review process was conducted according to the PRISMA-Statement. Restrictions were made, selecting the studies in English and published in peer-review journals, including at least one cognitive measure and presenting the measurement of HRV. Studies that included participants with medical conditions, dementia, psychiatric disorders, strokes, and traumatic brain injury were excluded. Twenty studies were selected, with a total of 19,431 participants. The results were divided into different cognitive domains determined a priori: global cognitive functioning, attention, processing speed, executive functions, memory, language and visuospatial skills. Results: Both increased sympathetic activity and decreased parasympathetic activity seem to be associated with a worse performance in the cognitive domains considered, in the absence of dementia and severe cardiovascular diseases or other medical and psychiatric diseases. Conclusion: The results highlight the influence of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) in cognitive functioning. However, the marked interest facing toward a specific domain, i.e., the executive functions, and the relatively small number of the studies on this topic do not allow understanding better this relationship. Despite these limits, HRV could be considered a promising early biomarker of cognitive impairment in populations without dementia or stroke. This index should be evaluated within a preventative perspective to minimize the risk of developing cognitive impairment.

Conservation Abilities, Visuospatial Skills, and Numerosity Processing Speed: Association With Math Achievement and Math Difficulties in Elementary School Children.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the associations between elementary school children's mathematical achievement and their conservation abilities, visuospatial skills, and numerosity processing speed. We also assessed differences in these abilities between children with different types of learning problems. In Study 1 ( N = 229), we investigated second to fourth graders and in Study 2 ( N = 120), third and fourth graders. Analyses revealed significant contributions of numerosity processing speed and visuospatial skills to math achievement beyond IQ. Conservation abilities were predictive in Study 1 only. Children with math difficulties showed lower visuospatial skills and conservation abilities than children with typical achievement levels and children with reading and/or spelling difficulties, whereas children with combined difficulties explicitly showed low conservation abilities. These findings provide further evidence for the relations between children's math skills and their visuospatial skills, conservation abilities, and processing speed and contribute to the understanding of deficits that are specific to mathematical difficulties.

The impact of ageing and gender on visual mental imagery processes: A study of performance on tasks from the Complete Visual Mental Imagery Battery (CVMIB).

In this study we aim to evaluate the impact of ageing and gender on different visual mental imagery processes. Two hundred and fifty-one participants (130 women and 121 men; age range = 18-77 years) were given an extensive neuropsychological battery including tasks probing the generation, maintenance, inspection, and transformation of visual mental images (Complete Visual Mental Imagery Battery, CVMIB). Our results show that all mental imagery processes with the exception of the maintenance are affected by ageing, suggesting that other deficits, such as working memory deficits, could account for this effect. However, the analysis of the transformation process, investigated in terms of mental rotation and mental folding skills, shows a steeper decline in mental rotation, suggesting that age could affect rigid transformations of objects and spare non-rigid transformations. Our study also adds to previous ones in showing gender differences favoring men across the lifespan in the transformation process, and, interestingly, it shows a steeper decline in men than in women in inspecting mental images, which could partially account for the mixed results about the effect of ageing on this specific process. We also discuss the possibility to introduce the CVMIB in clinical assessment in the context of theoretical models of mental imagery.