Of fungi and ticks: Morphological and molecular characterization of fungal contaminants of a laboratory-reared Ixodes ricinus colony.

Establishing and maintaining tick colonies in the laboratory is essential for studying their biology and pathogen transmission, or for the development of new tick control methods. Due to their requirement for very high humidity, these laboratory-bred colonies are frequently subject to fungal contamination. In the present study, we aimed to identify the fungal species that contaminated a laboratory-reared colony of Ixodes ricinus through microscopic observation and molecular identification. We identified three different taxa isolated from the ticks: Aspergillus parasiticus, Penicillium steckii, and Scopulariopsis brevicaulis. These three species are usually regarded as environmental saprophytic molds but both direct and indirect evidence suggest that they could also be considered as entomopathogenic fungi. Although we do not have any direct evidence that the fungi isolated from I. ricinus in this study could cause lethal infections in ticks, we observed that once infected, heavy fungal growth coupled with very high mortality rates suggest that studying the entomopathogenic potential of these fungi could be relevant to biological tick control.

Babesia divergens becoming extinct in cattle of Northeast Hungary: new data on the past and present situation.

Previously unpublished data from 1958 to 1967 attest the occurrence of Babesia divergens in cattle in several endemic foci of Northeast Hungary. During that period the number of clinical cases showed fluctuation with intervals of 4-5 years and monophasic seasonality (peaking in June). In order to assess the current status of bovine babesiosis in that region, blood samples were collected from 654 cattle on 44 farms of 36 settlements in or near the endemic area during 2005, and serum levels of IgG antibodies to B. divergens were measured by indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT). Only 2 samples (0.3%) showed positivity. In one village clinical babesiosis was observed over the past few years. Animals brought into the endemic area during the spring developed haemoglobinuria in the summer of the same year, but those introduced during the summer or autumn showed clinical signs only after two years. Sampled animals born and raised locally had neither haemoglobinuria nor seroconversion. Reduction in the number of cases during the past decades may have been influenced by the availability of hosts (i.e. decrease of cattle breeding) and the activity of vectors associated with climate-related changes (e.g. increase of annual sunlight hours in the endemic area). This is the first report on the prevalence of antibodies to B. divergens in cattle in Hungary.

Tick, fly, and mosquito control--lessons from the past, solutions for the future.

In order to continue to produce livestock in a sustainable fashion, it is suggested that what was used in the past will continue to form the mainstay of future control. For the foreseeable future, we must conserve what we have, and use it in combination with all the principles of integrated pest management, namely strategic and focussed treatments of animals, environmental control of breeding sites, disease management (including the principles of enzootic stability), and resistant breeds. Whilst new technologies, such as the development of vaccines both against the insect pest in some cases or the disease they transmit in others, and genetic engineering hold out some hope for the future; these are not sufficiently well advanced to permit wholesale application.

Present and future technologies for tick control.

Arsenic dips were the first effective method for controlling ticks and tick-borne diseases, and were used in many parts of the world for over 50 years before resistance to the chemical became a problem. Until organochlorine products became available about 1946 as alternatives to arsenic, significant losses occurred in cattle herds exposed to arsenic-resistant tick strains. Since the discovery of organochlorines, virtually every chemical group of pesticides developed for the control of arthropods is represented among the list of products employed for the control of ticks on cattle. The evolution of tick resistance to acaricides has been a major determinant of the need for new products. The variety of procedures for treating animals with acaricides ranges from dipping cattle to injecting systemic acaricides, but regardless of the treatment method used, producers need to know and follow proper application procedures to derive maximum benefits. The possibility of stocking with cattle breeds that acquire pronounced resistance to ticks or using recombinant antigen antitick vaccines are the most promising alternatives to acaricides. Most ranchers depend completely on acaricides to control ticks, but do not have access to guidelines on how to make a profit from their tick control program or how to detect and resolve problems with resistance to acaricides. Extension programs are needed to help ranchers manage animal health problems, including how to control ticks and tick-borne diseases.

Tropical bont tick eradication campaign in the French Antilles. Current status.

The Amblyomma variegatum eradication campaign was officially started in April 1994 in Martinique and in Guadeloupe, including its dependencies of Marie Galante, Desirade and St Martin. A budget of $10.5 and $5.9 million for Guadeloupe and Martinique, respectively, was initially (1991) calculated and considered necessary to achieve the program. However, EEC, the most important donor, estimated that 75% only of this proposal was acceptable, on which it agrees to support a maximum of 50%. The balance had to be provided by French government, local political institutions, and animal owners. The current budget actualized in 1995 by veterinary authorities of Martinique and Guadeloupe is $7,200,000 and $9,900,000 respectively. The program will take 5 years: preparation (1 year), acaricide application (3 years), surveillance (1 year). During this first year, a pilot committee was established, and a project leader was designated for each island. Efforts were essentially oriented to organize the program in the field and to obtain funds from French and local counterparts. Funds allowed the recruitment and training of 19 new agents in Guadeloupe and 9 in Martinique, in addition to personnel already involved in the tick control program. Census of animal owners and identification of cattle started or were developed. Tenders were invited to provide vehicles and acaricides. For the latter, choices were made considering the prices and efficacy as well as funds available. Due to a limited budget and cost of pour-on formulations, pour-on acaricides will be used on a maximum of 30% of animals only. In order to investigate animal owners' reticences and the most appropriate media channels to establish a communication and a training program, a survey was conducted in Guadeloupe on a sample of 301 animal owners. The results are presented. In order to strengthen the chances of success of the campaign in the French islands, it is expected that a similar program will take place soon in infested neighboring islands.

Progress in research on tick-borne diseases: theileriosis and heartwater.

The rapid population growth in subsaharan Africa necessitates a great increase in animal production in the more humid zones. Vector-borne diseases occurring in these zones will assume more importance, but are difficult to control. They include theileriosis and heartwater. Recent developments in research on these diseases are presented. Indigenous animal populations in endemic areas, subjected to natural selection, are far less susceptible than exotic stock. Heartwater, caused by the rickettsia Cowdria ruminantium, transmitted by Amblyomma ticks, causes high mortality in exotic ruminants. It has received much attention in recent years, partly because the disease has been introduced from Africa into the Caribbean and threatens the American mainland. Since the recent success of in vitro culture, much progress in research has been made, but so far prevention still relies mainly on acaricidal tick control; an infection and treatment method is used on a limited scale. Antigenic diversity is a complication for immunization procedures. Theileria parva (East Coast fever, Corridor disease and January disease) and T.annulata (Mediterranean or tropical theileriosis) are the most pathogenic of the 6 species of this protozoan genus that infect cattle. Great progress has been made in recent years in knowledge on the immunology, the epidemiology, the taxonomy and the chemotherapy of theileriosis. Intensive acaricidal tick control can now be supplemented by an attenuated schizont vaccine against T.annulata, while immunization against East Coast fever is carried out on a limited scale using virulent sporozoite infection and treatment. Research on recombinant vaccines is promising. Antigenic diversity in T.parva is a serious complication.

Ticks as the main target of human tick-borne disease control: Russian practical experience and its lessons.

For several decades, the emphasis in human tick-borne disease control has been on the epidemiologically-based preventive (non-specific) approach where tick vectors were the main target of control impact. A long-term, large-scale campaign for controlling the taiga tick Ixodes persulcatus, the main vector of tick-borne encephalitis, was carried out in Russia in the 1950s to 1970s. The practical experience accumulated during that campaign could be of great value for the current development of strategies of tick-borne disease control. A general scheme of human protection from tick-borne diseases is presented where the required investment into protection is proportional to the risk of human infection and particular strategies of control and protection are differentiated. The critical point in the preventive approach is the necessity of radical tick suppression in the areas with the highest risk of human infection that can be successfully achieved only through chemical treatment directed at the eradication of the entire tick population. The following aspects are considered: the tick population (or a group of populations) as a desirable target of any acaricidal impact (biological and geographic aspects, the fate of the population after treatment); the advantage of long-term planning for control campaigns; and the influence of acaricidal impact on foci of tick-borne diseases. The conception of losses of potential pesticidal impact efficacy provides much room for the improvement of conventional tick control strategies making them more efficient and safe to the environment. The current tendency to make humans the main target of control through vaccination and/or medical treatment (specific approach) does not fit the objectives of effective human protection from tick-borne diseases, especially because of a tick population's ability to carry and transmit more than one pathogen over the same area.

Fiebre botonosa mediterránea: a propósito de un caso / Mediterranean spotted fever: a case report

Los síntomas típicos de la fiebre botonosa mediterránea (FBM) incluyen fiebre, un rash cutáneo generalizado y la presencia de una escara negra que puede pasar desapercibida. Por lo general sigue un curso benigno, aunque ocasionalmente aparecen complicaciones graves. A pesar de que la enfermedad fue descrita hace un siglo, algunas preguntas acerca del vector y el reservorio real de la enfermedad siguen sin aclararse. Presentamos un caso típico de FBM y planteamos una hipótesis sobre la forma de transmisión de la Rickettsia en nuestro paciente

Typical symptoms of Mediterranean spotted fever (FBM) include fever, generalized rash and the presence of a black eschar that may go unnoticed. Usually follows a benign course, but occasionally serious complications occur. Although the disease was first described a century ago, a few questions about the actual vector and reservoir of the disease remain unclear. We present a typical case of FBM and propose a hypothesis about the mode of transmission of Rickettsia in our patient

Sustained control of Gibson Island, Maryland, populations of Ixodes scapularis and Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae) by community-administered 4-Poster deer self-treatment bait stations.

In 1998, twenty-five 4-Poster deer treatment bait stations were deployed on Gibson Island (GI), Maryland, as part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Northeast Area-Wide Tick Control Project. Treatments concluded in June 2002, having achieved 80% and 99.5% control of blacklegged ticks, Ixodes scapularis, and lone star ticks, Amblyomma americanum, respectively. No area-wide tick control was attempted again on the island until 2003, when 15 Dandux-manufactured 4-Posters were purchased by the GI Corporation and operated until the present. Annual flagging at sites on the island and a similar untreated area on the nearby mainland in May and June from 1998 to 2007 has demonstrated that populations of host-seeking nymphs of both tick species have remained at consistently low levels on the island during GI Corporation administration of the 4-Posters, in spite of 40% fewer 4-Posters and increased deer density during 2003-2007.

Evaluation of the United States Department Of Agriculture Northeast Area-wide Tick Control Project by meta-analysis.

As part of the Northeast Area-wide Tick Control Project (NEATCP), meta-analyses were performed using pooled data on the extent of tick-vector control achieved through seven concurrent studies, conducted within five states, using U.S. Department of Agriculture "4-Poster" devices to deliver targeted-acaricide to white-tailed deer. Although reductions in the abundance of all life-stages of Ixodes scapularis were the measured outcomes, this study focused on metrics associated with I. scapularis nymphal tick densities as this measure has consistently proven to directly correlate with human risk of acquiring Lyme disease. Since independent tick sampling schemes were undertaken at each of the five environmentally distinct study locations, a meta-analytic approach permitted estimation of a single true control-effect size for each treatment year of the NEATCP. The control-effect is expressed as the annual percent I. scapularis nymphal control most consistent with meta-analysis data for each treatment year. Our meta-analyses indicate that by the sixth treatment year, the NEATCP effectively reduced the relative density of I. scapularis nymphs by 71% on the 5.14 km(2) treatment sites, corresponding to a 71% lower relative entomologic risk index for acquiring Lyme disease.

The United States Department of Agriculture's Northeast Area-wide Tick Control Project: summary and conclusions.

From 1997 to 2002, the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Northeast Area-wide Tick Control Project used acaricide-treated 4-Poster Deer Treatment Bait Stations in five eastern states to control ticks feeding on white-tailed deer. The objectives of this host-targeted technology were to reduce free-living blacklegged (Ixodes scapularis Say) and lone star (Amblyomma americanum [L.]) tick populations and thereby to reduce the risk of tick-borne disease. During 2002 to 2004, treatments were suspended, and tick population recovery rates were assayed. Subsequently, the major factors that influenced variations in efficacy were extrapolated to better understand and improve this technology. Treatments resulted in significant reductions in free-living populations of nymphal blacklegged ticks at six of the seven sites, and lone star ticks were significantly reduced at all three sites where they were present. During the study, maximal significant (p < or = 0.05) efficacies against nymphal blacklegged and lone star ticks at individual sites ranged from 60.0 to 81.7 and 90.9 to 99.5%, respectively. The major environmental factor that reduced efficacy was the occurrence of heavy acorn masts, which provided an alternative food resource for deer. Although the 4-Poster technology requires 1 or more years to show efficacy, this host-targeted intervention was demonstrated to be an efficacious, economical, safe, and environment-friendly alternative to area-wide spraying of acaricide to control free-living populations of these tick species.

Acaros astigmata y prostigmata de importancia médica en el Perú / Astigmata and prostigmata acari of medical importance in Perú

En el presente trabajo reportamos especies de ácaros Astigmata y Prostigmata que producen patología humana en el Perú. El estudio se hizo en pacientes que acudieron al Instituto de Medicina Tropical "Daniel Alcides Carrión" Huinco y en polvo doméstico de Lima, Lambayeque, Trujillo y Ucayali; se consideraron además referencias bibliográficas publicadas al respecto. Hallamos los siguientes Astigmata: Tyrophagus putrescentiae, Acarus siro, Suidasia sp., Dermatophagoides pteromyssinus, Glycyphagus domesticus, y Sarcoptes scabiei; y los prostigmata: Demodex folliculorum, tarsonemus sp. y Trombicula irritans.