Identification and cellular location of glutamine synthetase in human sperm.

Glutamine synthetase (GS) catalyzes the de novo synthesis of glutamine, an amino acid that has been shown to influence sperm motility in mammals. To date, no information is available about GS content in human sperm. In this study, we have characterized the presence and cellular location of GS in fresh human normozoospermic samples. We have detected a single band corresponding to GS by Western blot. Confocal analysis has revealed GS immunoreactivity in the post-acrosomal head region. Moreover, double-labeling experiments with either F-actin or calicin have demonstrated GS confinement in the post-acrosomal region of the perinuclear theca. These data have been validated by a post-embedding ultra-structural study. The presence of GS in the post-acrosomal region of the perinuclear theca suggests that human sperm can carry out in glutamine synthesis.

Three-dimensional structure of a type III glutamine synthetase by single-particle reconstruction.

GlnN, the type III glutamine synthetase (GSIII) from the medically important, anaerobic, opportunistic pathogen Bacteroides fragilis, has 82.8 kDa subunits that share only 9% sequence identity with the type I glutamine synthetases (GSI), the only family for which a structure is known. Active GlnN was found predominantly in a single peak that eluted from a calibrated gel-filtration chromatography column at a position equaivalent to 0.86(+/-0.08) MDa. Negative-stain electron microscopy enabled the identification of double-ringed particles and single hexameric rings ("pinwheels") resulting from partial staining. A 2D average of these pinwheels showed marked similarity to the corresponding structures found in preparations of GSI, except that the arms of the subunits were 40% longer. Reconstructions from particles embedded in vitreous ice showed that GlnN has a double-ringed, dodecameric structure with a 6-fold dihedral space group (D6) symmetry and dimensions of 17.0 nm parallel with the 6-fold axis and 18.3 nm parallel with the 2-fold axes. The structures, combined with a sequence alignment based on structural principles, showed how many aspects of the structure of GSI, and most notably the alpha/beta barrel fold active site were preserved. There was evidence for the presence of this structure in the reconstructed volume, thus, identifying the indentations between the pinwheel spokes as putative active sites and suggesting conservation of the overall molecular geometry found in GSI despite their low level of global homology. Furthermore, docking of GSI into the reconstruction left sufficient plausibly located unoccupied density to account for the additional residues in GSIII, thus validating the structure.

The 13 angstroms structure of a chaperonin GroEL-protein substrate complex by cryo-electron microscopy.

The 13 angstroms resolution structures of GroEL bound to a single monomer of the protein substrate glutamine synthetase (GS(m)), as well as that of unliganded GroEL have been determined from a heterogeneous image population using cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) coupled with single-particle image classification and reconstruction techniques. We combined structural data from cryo-EM maps and dynamic modeling, taking advantage of the known X-ray crystallographic structure and normal mode flexible fitting (NMFF) analysis, to describe the changes that occur in GroEL structure induced by GS(m) binding. The NMFF analysis reveals that the molecular movements induced by GS(m) binding propagate throughout the GroEL structure. The modeled molecular motions show that some domains undergo en bloc movements, while others show more complex independent internal movements. Interestingly, the substrate-bound apical domains of both the cis (GS(m)-bound ring) and trans (the opposite substrate-free ring) show counterclockwise rotations, in the same direction (though not as dramatic) as those documented for the ATP-GroEL-induced structure changes. The structural changes from the allosteric substrate protein-induced negative cooperativity between the GroEL rings involves upward concerted movements of both cis and trans equatorial domains toward the GS(m)-bound ring, while the inter-ring distances between the heptamer contact residues are maintained. Furthermore, the NMFF analysis identifies the secondary structural elements that are involved in the observed approximately 5 angstroms reduction in the diameter of the cavity opening in the unbound trans ring. Understanding the molecular basis of these substrate protein-induced structural changes across the heptamer rings provides insight into the origins of the allosteric negative cooperative effects that are transmitted over long distances (approximately 140 angstroms).

Electron microscopy and image analysis of the GroEL-like protein and its complexes with glutamine synthetase from pea leaves.

The molecular structure of GroEL-like protein from pea leaves has been studied by electron microscopy and image analysis of negatively stained particles. Over 1500 molecular projections were selected and classified by multivariate statistical analysis. It was shown that the molecule consists of 14 subunits arranged in two layers with 72 point group symmetry. Side view projections of the molecule show a four-striation appearance, which subdivides both layers of seven subunits into two halves; this may be explained by a two-domain structure of the subunits. The presence in protein preparations of projections corresponding to one layer of subunits or half-molecules is consistent with the molecular structure suggested. Electron microscopic evidence for a specific association of GroEL-like protein and octameric glutamine synthetase, which was co-purified with this protein, was obtained.

Structural changes in GroEL effected by binding a denatured protein substrate.

In the absence of nucleotides or cofactors, the Escherichia coli chaperonin GroEL binds select proteins in non-native conformations, such as denatured glutamine synthetase (GS) monomers, preventing their aggregation and spontaneous renaturation. The nature of the GroEL-GS complexes thus formed, specifically the effect on the conformation of the GroEL tetradecamer, has been examined by electron microscopy. We find that specimens of GroEL-GS are visibly heterogeneous, due to incomplete loading of GroEL with GS. Images contain particles indistinguishable from GroEL alone, and also those with consistent identifiable differences. Side-views of the modified particles reveal additional protein density at one end of the GroEL-GS complex, and end-views display chirality in the heptameric projection not seen in the unliganded GroEL. The coordinate appearance of these two projection differences suggests that binding of GS, as representative of a class of protein substrates, induces or stabilizes a conformation of GroEL that differs from the unliganded chaperonin. Three-dimensional reconstruction of the GroEL-GS complex reveals the location of the bound protein substrate, as well as complex conformational changes in GroEL itself, both cis and trans with respect to the bound GS. The most apparent structural alterations are inward movements of the apical domains of both GroEL heptamers, protrusion of the substrate protein from the cavity of the cis ring, and a narrowing of the unoccupied opening of the trans ring.

Strategies for protein-based nanofabrication: Ni2+-NTA as a chemical mask to control biologically imposed symmetry.

BACKGROUND: Technologies that improve control of protein orientation on surfaces or in solution, through designed molecular recognition, will expand the range of proteins that are useful for biosensors, molecular devices and biomaterials. A limitation of some proteins is their biologically imposed symmetry, which results in indistinguishable recognition surfaces. Here, we have explored methods for modifying the symmetry of an oligomeric protein that exhibits useful self-assembly properties. RESULTS: Escherichia coli glutamine synthetase (GS) contains 24 solvent-exposed histidines on two symmetry-related surfaces. These histidines drive a metal-dependent self-assembly of GS tubes. Immobilization of GS on the affinity resin Ni2+-NTA followed by on-column modification with diethyl pyrocarbonate affords asymmetrically modified GS that self-assembles only to the extent of 'short' dimeric GS tubes, as demonstrated by electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering and atomic force microscopy. The utility of Ni2+-NTA as a chemical mask was also demonstrated for asymmetric modification of engineered cysteines adjacent to the natural histidines. CONCLUSIONS: Current genetic methods do not provide distinguishable recognition elements on symmetry-related surfaces of biologically assembled proteins. Ni2+-NTA serves as a mask to control chemical modification in vitro of residues within symmetry-related pairs, on proteins containing functional His-tags. This strategy may be extended to modification of a wide range of amino acids with a myriad of reagents.

Discrete cellular and subcellular localization of glutamine synthetase and the glutamate transporter GLAST in the rat vestibular end organ.

Glial cells play an important role in the removal and metabolism of synaptically released glutamate in the central nervous system (CNS). It is not clear how glutamate is handled at peripheral glutamate synapses, which are not associated with glia. Glutamate is a likely transmitter in the synapse between the hair cells and afferent dendrites of the vestibular end organ. Immunocytochemistry was performed to investigate the distribution at this site of the high affinity glutamate transporter GLAST and glutamate metabolizing enzyme glutamine synthetase. Confocal microscopy revealed that GLAST and glutamine synthetase were co-localized in supporting cells apposed to the immunonegative hair cells. Postembedding immunoelectron microscopy revealed that GLAST was heterogeneously distributed along the plasma membranes of the supporting cells, with higher concentrations basally (at the level of the afferent synapses) than apically. Both immunoreactivities were also present in non-neuronal cells in the vestibular ganglion. The present findings suggest that glutamate released at the afferent synapse of vestibular hair cells may be taken up by adjacent supporting cells and converted into glutamine. Thus, at this peripheral synapse, the supporting cells may carry out functions similar to those of glial cells in the CNS.

Characterization of Bacillus subtilis glutamine synthetase by limited proteolysis.

The inactivation of native glutamine synthetase (GS) from Bacillus subtilis by trypsin, chymotrypsin, or subtilisin followed pseudo-fast order kinetics. Trypsin cleaved the polypeptide chain of GS into two principal fragments, one of about 43,000 (Mr) and the other of smaller than 10,000. Chymotrypsin and subtilisin caused similar cleavage of GS. A large fragment (Mr 35,000) and one smaller than 10,000 were detected on SDS-PAGE. The nicked protein remained dodecameric, as observed on gel filtration, electrophoresis, and electron micrography. In the presence of glutamate, ATP, and Mn2+, the digestion of GS by each of the three proteases was retarded completely; however, the presence of one substrate, L-glutamate, ATP+Mn2+, or ATP+Mg2+ led to partial protection. The product, L-glutamine, did not retard but altered the susceptibility of the protease sensitive sites. Amino acid sequence analysis of the two smaller polypeptide fragments showed that the nicked region was around serine 375 and serine 311, respectively, and that both large fragments (43,000 and 35,000) were N-terminal polypeptides of GS. The serine 311 region was involved in the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex. Tyrosine 372 near serine 375 corresponded to tyrosine 397 which was adenylylated by adenyltransferase in Escherichia coli GS.

Inactivation of Bacillus subtilis glutamine synthetase by metal-catalyzed oxidation.

Instability of Bacillus subtilis glutamine synthetase in crude extracts was attributed to site-specific oxidation by a mixed-function oxidation, and not to limited proteolysis by intracellular serine proteases (ISP). The crude extract from B. subtilis KN2, which is deficient in three intracellular proteases, inactivated glutamine synthetase similarly to the wild-type strain extract. To understand the structural basis of the functional change, oxidative modification of B. subtilis glutamine synthetase was studied utilizing a model system consisting of ascorbate, oxygen, and iron salts. The inactivation reaction appeared to be first order with respect to the concentration of unmodified enzyme. The loss of catalytic activity was proportional to the weakening of subunit interactions. B. subtilis glutamine synthetase was protected from oxidative modification by either 5 mM Mn2+ or 5 mM Mn2+ plus 5 mM ATP, but not by Mg2+. The CD-spectra and electron microscopic data showed that oxidative modification induced relatively subtle changes in the dodecameric enzyme molecules, but did not denature the protein. These limited changes are consistent with a site-specific free radical mechanism occurring at the metal binding site of the enzyme. Analytical data of the inactivated enzyme showed that loss of catalytic activity occurred faster than the appearance of carbonyl groups in amino acid side chains of the protein. In B. subtilis glutamine synthetase, the catalytic activity was highly sensitive to minute deviations of conformation in the dodecameric molecules and these subtle changes in the molecules could be regarded as markers for susceptibility to proteolysis.

Metal-dependent self-assembly of protein tubes from Escherichia coli glutamine synthetase. Cu(2+) EPR studies of the ligation and stoichiometry of intermolecular metal binding sites.

Escherichia coli glutamine synthetase (GS) is a dodecameric assembly of identical subunits arranged as two back-to-back hexagonal rings. In the presence of divalent metal ions, the dodecamers "stack" along their six-fold axis of symmetry to yield elongated tubes. This self-assembly process provides a useful model for probing metal-dependent protein-protein interactions. However, no direct spectroscopic or structural data have confirmed the identity of the ligands to the shared metal ions in "stacked" GS. Here, 9-GHz Cu(2+) EPR studies have been used to probe the ligand structure and stoichiometry of the metal binding sites. The wild type protein, with N-terminal sequence (His-4)-X(3)-(Met-8)-X(3)-(His-12), exhibits a classic Cu(2+)-nitrogen spectrum, with g = 2.06 G, g = 2.24 G, and A = 19.3 x 10(-3) cm(-1). No superhyperfine structure is observed. The H4C mutant affords a spectrum that is the combination of two spectra at all stages of saturation. One of the overlapping spectra is nearly identical to the spectrum of wild type, and is due to His ligation. The second spectrum observed yields g = 2.28 and A = 17.1 x 10(-3) cm(-1). The linewidth and tensor values of the second component have been assigned to Cu(2+)-S ligation. In contrast, the H12C mutant exhibits an EPR spectrum at low Cu(2+) occupancy that is very similar to the second set of spectral features observed for H4C, and which is assigned to Cu(2+)-S ligation. No Cu(2+)-His ligation is apparent until the Cu(2+)/N-terminal helices ratio is >1.0. At saturation, the g = 2.00-2.06 region of the spectrum is essentially a mirror image of the spectrum obtained with H4C, and is due to overlapping Cu(2+)-N and Cu(2+)-S EPR spectra. The M8L and M8C mutants were also studied, in order to probe the role of position 8 in the N-terminal helix. Spectral parameters of these mutants are nearly identical to each other and to the wild type spectrum at saturating Cu(2+), suggesting that Met-8 does not act as a direct metal ligand. Together, the results provide the first direct evidence for a binuclear metal ion site between each N-terminal helix pair at the GS-GS interface, with both His-4 and His-12 providing metal ligands.

Engineering the aggregation properties of dodecameric glutamine synthetase: a single amino acid substitution controls 'salting out'.

Escherichia coli glutamine synthetase (GS) is a dodecamer of identical subunits which are arranged as two face-to-face hexameric rings. In the presence of 10% ammonium sulfate, wild type GS exhibits a pH-dependent "salting out' with a pKa of 4.51. Electron micrographs indicate that the pH-dependent aggregation corresponds to a highly specific self-assembly of GS tubules, which result from stacking of individual dodecamers. This stacking of dodecamers is similar to the metal ion-induced GS tubule formation previously described. Site-directed mutagenesis experiments indicate that the N-terminal helix of each subunit is involved in the salting out reaction, as it is in the metal-induced stacking. A single substitution of alanine for His4 completely abolishes the (NH4)2SO4-induced aggregation. However, the H4C mutant protein does nearly completely precipitate under the same salting out conditions. Mutations at other residues within the helix have no effect on the stacking reaction. Differential catalytic activity of unadenylylated GS versus adenylylated GS has been used to determine whether wild type dodecamers "complement' the H4A mutant in the stacking reaction. The complementation experiments indicate that His4 residues on both sides of the dodecamer-dodecamer interfaces are not absolutely required for salting out, although the wild type dodecamers clearly stack preferentially with other wild type dodecamers. Approximately 20% of the protein precipitated from the mixtures containing the wild type GS and the H4A mutant is the mutant. The implications of these results for protein engineering are discussed.

Glutamine synthetase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: extracellular release and characterization of its enzymatic activity.

We have investigated the activity and extracellular release of glutamine synthetase [L-glutamate:ammonia ligase (ADP-forming), EC 6.3.1.2] of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The purified, homogeneous M. tuberculosis glutamine synthetase appears to consist of 12 most likely identical subunits of M(r) 58,000, arranged in two superimpose hexagons. In the catalysis of L-glutamine, the enzyme has an apparent Km for L-glutamate of approximately 3 mM at the pH optimum of 7.5. M. tuberculosis releases a large proportion (approximately 30%) of its total measurable enzyme activity into the culture medium, a feature that is highly specific for pathogenic mycobacteria. Immunogold electron microscopy revealed that M. tuberculosis also releases the enzyme into its phagosome in infected human monocytes. Two potentially important roles for glutamine synthase in the pathogenesis of M. tuberculosis infection are (i) the synthesis of L-glutamine, a major component of the cell wall of pathogenic but not nonpathogenic mycobacteria, and (ii) the modulation of the ammonia level in the M. tuberculosis phagosome, which may in turn influence phagosomal pH and phagosomelysosome fusion.