A Piece of History: The Legacy of George W. Counts and Underrepresented Populations.

The fight for social justice and diversity in medicine stems from racial inequalities and discrimination that have permeated our society for centuries. As America has become more diverse in recent years, African American physicians remain largely underrepresented in the healthcare workforce and academic medicine. In the field of infectious diseases, one man, George W. Counts, has shouldered the struggle to end disparities in education, training, research, and academic advancement. This article celebrates his legacy and rekindles the discussion about inclusion, diversity, access, and equity in infectious diseases.

Consanguineous marriages among Andalusian Gitanos/Calé: a genealogical analysis (1925-2006).

Using data from the family and genealogical reconstitutions of the Gitano population of 22 contiguous localities in eastern Andalusia, Spain, this study analysed the intensity, structure and historical evolution of consanguinity in 3056 couples formed from 1925 to 2006. Of these unions, 54.8% were consanguineous, and 28.7% involved relatives up to and including second cousins, resulting in a mean coefficient of inbreeding up to the third degree α3 = 12.4 × 10-3. The rest of the consanguineous unions (26.1% of all) involved more-distant relatives, such as third cousins, fourth cousins and so forth. When all consanguinity degrees found in the genealogical reconstitution were considered, the total mean coefficient of inbreeding was αt = 14.8 × 10-3. The merging of families and pedigrees generated a complex genealogical network with many inbreeding loops and important founder effects. This network revealed a high rate (62%) of Multiple Consanguineous Marriages (MCMs) in which second and subsequent consanguineous ties increased inbreeding levels by a fifth (20.5%). The accumulation of multiple degrees of distant relatedness, many of which had little social or biological importance, has contributed to a significant increase in inbreeding rates. Among Gitano people, intra-family marriages have remained common in the last decades, in sharp contrast to other Spanish populations. Hence the highest rates of close consanguinity (34%) and inbreeding (α3 = 14.6 × 10-3) were found in the 1960s, the decade that saw the onset of Spain's socioeconomic modernization, internationalization and massive migration. These are among the highest rates of inbreeding found in any European population, including the most endogamous Spanish isolates. They reveal marriage strategies not constrained primarily by geographical barriers, but by ethnocultural separation. Interestingly, in recent decades mixed marriages have been increasing rapidly in this minority, although they are compatible with high rates of consanguinity. Gitano secular endogamy is breaking up, but not uniformly.

Race and imprisonments: vigilante violence, minority threat, and racial politics.

The effects of lynchings on criminal justice outcomes have seldom been examined. Recent findings also are inconsistent about the effects of race on imprisonments. This study uses a pooled time-series design to assess lynching and racial threat effects on state imprisonments from 1972 to 2000. After controlling for Republican strength, conservatism, and other factors, lynch rates explain the growth in admission rates. The findings also show that increases in black residents produce subsequent expansions in imprisonments that likely are attributable to white reactions to this purported menace. But after the percentage of blacks reaches a substantial threshold­and the potential black vote becomes large enough to begin to reduce these harsh punishments­reductions in prison admissions occur. These results also confirm a political version of racial threat theory by indicating that increased Republican political strength produces additional imprisonments.

Public policy and aboriginal peoples in Canada: taking a life-course perspective.

The health and social conditions of First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples in Canada remain important policy concerns. The life course has been proposed by some as a framework for analysis that could assist in the development of policies that would improve the economic and social inclusion of Aboriginal peoples. In this paper we support the goal of applying a life-course perspective to policies related to Aboriginal peoples but suggest that the framework needs to consider the unique relationship between Aboriginal peoples and public policies. We provide some illustrations using data from the 2001 Aboriginal Peoples Survey.

A Historical Analysis of the Impact of Hegemonic Masculinities on Sexual Assault in the Lives of Ethnic Minority Women: Informing Nursing Interventions and Health Policy.

Women's experiences of sexual assault are rooted in and informed by a history that nurses need to understand in order to provide meaningful and effective care. In this article, we present a comprehensive literature review guided by intersectionality theory to deepen our understanding of the historical role that hegemonic masculinity plays in shaping ethnic minority women's experiences of sexual assault. Final sources included were analyzed using thematic analysis. On the basis of our analyses, we identified 4 themes: social order hierarchies, "othering" dynamics, economic labor divisions, and negative media/mass communication depiction. Our findings contribute to our understanding of these important histories that speak to the trauma of sexual violence inflicted upon the bodies of ethnic minority women, which we can incorporate into nursing education curricula. Incorporating this knowledge would equip nurses and allied health professionals with the necessary knowledge and skills that would enable them to help patients navigate multiple systems of oppression as they engage in help seeking following a sexual assault experience. This knowledge also acknowledges rather than dismisses the historically acceptable use of sexual violence against ethnic minority women. In addition, acknowledging these histories enables us to move forward as a society in engaging in an urgently needed cultural shift to address the hegemonic masculinities that perpetuate violence against women in the United States.

Minorities in academic medicine: review of the literature.

Given the considerable demographic changes occurring in the in the United States coupled with the urgent need for the field of medicine to continue to adapt to and better align with societal needs and expectations, a growing number of leaders in academic medicine have called for academic health centers to redouble their efforts to increase the diversity of students, faculty, and staff. Although it is laudable to call for increased attention and efforts to diversify, it is of paramount importance to review and distill what we have learned from past efforts so that future energy can be spent intelligently to ensure greater impact going forward. This article reviews the literature on both the barriers and facilitators for racial and ethnic minorities in academic medical careers and offers guidance for increasing the diversity of the nation's medical school faculty members and leadership.

The fertility of ethnic minorities in the UK, 1960s-2006.

This paper presents estimates of the level and trend of the fertility of different ethnic minorities in the UK from the 1960s up to 2006. The fertility estimates are derived primarily from the Labour Force Survey using the Own-Child method, with additional information from the General Household Survey and vital registration data. Comparisons are made between the level of fertility of UK-born and immigrant mothers from minority groups, and the fertility of the populations in the country of origin. Total fertility in all groups has fallen from levels that were initially relatively high. That of some UK ethnic groups has already fallen to about the level of the UK national average (e.g., black Caribbean) or below it (e.g., Indian and Chinese). Only among Pakistani and Bangladeshi women does total fertility remain substantially above the national average despite a continuous decrease over the last 20 years.

A Decade Later: assessing successes and challenges in Manitoba's Provincial Immigrant Nominee Program.

During the past decade, Manitoba's Provincial Nominee Program (MPNP) has increased immigration to the province and dispersed immigrants more widely within Manitoba. At the same time, the rapid growth of the program and the decentralized way in which it has been implemented have contributed to some challenges. This ten-year analysis of the MPNP finds that many places in Manitoba are experiencing settlement service gaps, and that immigrants and communities are taking on much of the burden for MPNP application and settlement. In addition, the analysis demonstrates that the fragmented way in which the MPNP has been marketed and implemented (i.e., by relying on particular employers, consultants, and ethnocultural organizations) has resulted in a sort of ethnocultural inequality where certain groups are ushered into the province-often to perform particular occupations-while others are bypassed.

The Value of "Experience" and the labour market entry of new immigrants to Canada.

We use data from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada to compare how pre-immigration experience in hi-tech and regulated occupations affects employment outcomes. While differences do decline over time, those with experience in an unregulated hi-tech occupation are more likely to be employed sooner in a matching and/or full time job. Immigrants with hi-tech occupational experience are more likely to have their foreign experience accepted, possibly due to the transferability of these skills and the absence of institutional barriers. These findings indicate important sectoral, regulatory, and institutional differences in the treatment of pre-immigration experience, with policy implications.

Understanding the occurrence of interracial marriage in the United States through differential assimilation.

American society is undergoing unprecedented cultural changes in the 21st century. This social transformation began with the civil rights movement in the 1960s. As the United States becomes more diverse, both racially and ethnically, equal access to a variety of social institutions and organizations becomes more challenging. With respect to marriage, popular media continually report the blurring of boundaries between racial and ethnic groups. As a result, there has been a tremendous increase in interracial dating and marriage over the past several decades. There are considerable differences between the occurrence of interracial dating and interracial marriage. Data suggest that there is a much higher level of interracial dating in comparison to interracial marriage. This research effort focuses on trends in interracial marriages in the United States between 1980 and 2006. Information from the U.S. Census Bureau was used to analyze changes in the number and frequency of interracial marriages in American society over a 22-year time frame. Differential assimilation is employed for understanding interracial marriage trends and distinguishing important statistical differences between marriages with a Black spouse and those interracial marriages not involving a Black spouse. This exploration provides important empirical findings for assessing the progress of assimilation in America.

Commemorating the future in post-war Chernivtsi.

Throughout the Second World War and the post-war period, the city of Chernivtsi was transformed from a multiethnic and borderland urban microcosm into a culturally uniform Soviet socialist city. As the Soviets finally took power in this onetime capital of a Hapsburg province in 1944, they not only sponsored further large-scale population transfers but also "repopulated" its history, creating a new urban myth of cultural uniformity. This article examines the connection between war commemoration in Chernivtsi in the era of post-war, state-sponsored anti-Semitism and the formation of collective memory and identities of the city's post-war population. The images of homogeneously Ukrainian Chernivtsi and Bukovina were created through the art of monumental propaganda, promoting public remembrance of certain events and personalities while making sure that others were doomed to oblivion. Selective commemoration of the wartime events was an important tool of drawing the borders of Ukrainian national identity, making it exclusivist and ethnic-based. Through an investigation of the origins of the post-war collective memory in the region, this article addresses the problem of perceived discontinuity between all things Soviet and post-Soviet in Ukraine. It demonstrates that it is, on the contrary, the continuity between Soviet and post-Soviet eras that defines today's dominant culture and state ideology in Ukraine and particularly in its borderlands.

Legislating separation and solidarity in plural societies: the Chinese in Indonesia and Malaysia.

The Chinese minority plays a dominant role in the economies of Indonesia and Malaysia, a fact that evokes indigenous resentment. However, Indonesia and Malaysia dealt differently with the issue. Malaysia legislated the Malays into the economy and protected Chinese citizenship, making them an integral part of a multicultural state. By contrast, New Order Indonesia adopted policies of economic manipulation, forced assimilation, and unequal citizenship. Only when the New Order regime fell did Chinese integration begin. The policy trajectories of Indonesia and Malaysia offer important lessons for plural states.

Indian hospitals and Aboriginal nurses: Canada and Alaska.

Between 1945 and the early 1970s, both Indian Health Services in Canada (IHS), and the Alaska Native Health Service (ANS) initiated programs and activities aimed at recruiting and training nurses/nurses aides from Canadian and Alaskan Native communities. In Alaska, the Mt. Edgecumbe Hospital in Sitka acted as a training facility for Alaska Native nurses' aides, while in Canada, the Charles Camsell Hospital served a similar function. These initiatives occurred prior to the devolution of health care to Aboriginal communities. The histories of these two hospitals provide a comparative opportunity to reveal themes related to the history of Aboriginal nurse training and Aboriginal health policies in the north. The paper outlines the structure and function of two main hospitals within the Indian Health and Alaska Native Health Services, discusses the historic training, and role of Aboriginal nurses and caregivers within those systems using both archival and oral history sources.

Prejudice and the medical profession: a five-year update.

Over the past decades the mortality rate in the United States has decreased, and life expectancy has increased. Yet a number of recent studies have drawn Americans' attention to the fact that racial and ethnic disparities persist in health care. It is clear that the U.S. health care system, which is the envy of the world, is not only flawed by basic injustices, but may be the cause of both injury and death for members of racial and ethnic minorities. Progress has been made in several areas since the original Institute of Medicine 2002 report. However, five years later, the 2007 National Healthcare Disparities Report (NHDR) reported that overall, disparities in quality and access for minority groups and poor populations have not been reduced since the original report. The three key themes that have emerged from this report are the following: (1) overall, disparities in health care quality and access are not getting smaller; (2) progress is being made, but many of the biggest gaps in quality and access have not been reduced; and (3) the problem of persistent uninsurance is a major barrier to reducing disparities. Unless measures are taken to address this racism, unless a new sense of trust is established between the medical establishment and racial and ethnic minorities, these injustices will continue to deepen and expand, and more lives will be placed in jeopardy. What is needed is a comprehensive, multi-level, culturally relevant strategy that contains interventions that target individuals, communities, and the nation as a whole. This will entail understanding the causes of racism in the medical profession, identifying practical interventions that address racism in individuals, communities, and the nation as a whole, and forming partnerships that will work to develop a new sense of trust between the medical establishment and the minority communities.

History of Asian American psychology.

An overview of the history of Asian American psychology is provided by reviewing the context for the development of the field as well as the early founding of the Asian American Psychological Association (AAPA). The presidents of AAPA as well as key events and conferences are noted. The involvement of AAPA leaders in national mental health policies and activities are reviewed. The substantive areas of Asian American psychology and the education and training of Asian American psychologists are also discussed. The article ends with some comments about the future of Asian American psychology.

Synopsis of key persons, events, and associations in the history of Latino psychology.

In this article, we present a brief synopsis of six early Latino psychologists, several key conferences, the establishment of research centers, and early efforts to create an association for Latino psychologists. Our chronology runs from approximately 1930 to 2000. This history is a firsthand account of how these early leaders, conferences, and efforts to bring Latinos and Latinas together served as a backdrop to current research and practice in Latino psychology. This history of individuals and events is also intertwined with the American Psychological Association and the National Institute of Mental Health and efforts by Latino psychologists to obtain the professional support necessary to lay down the roots of a Latino presence in psychology.

The Minority Fellowship Program: a 30-year legacy of training psychologists of color.

This article traces the development and growth of the American Psychological Association (APA) Minority Fellowship Program (MFP) from is inception in 1974 to 2007. The original influences of Black psychiatrists in creating the Center for Minority Group Mental Health at the National Institute of Mental Health are described, and the initial structure and strategy of MFP is outlined. The dramatic growth in the number of MFP Fellows (82%), the average size of Fellowship stipends (810%), and the total stipend dollars (1,560%) reflects expansion of the programs in substance abuse research, treatment and prevention, neuroscience and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), as well as mental health service and research. The influence of the MFP on the APA and departments of psychology are described, including the role the MFP played in the establishment of the Office, Board, and Committee of Ethnic Minority Affairs. Some of the accomplishments and leadership roles MFP alumni have played are described. The article concludes with a discussion of the current status of MFP and projections for the future.

Changing psychology: history and legacy of the Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues.

The history and legacy of the Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues (American Psychological Association Division 45) for its first 20 years are reviewed. The legitimization of the ethnic minority scholarship within organized psychology is chronicled, highlighting the central role of advocacy and activism. Multiculturalism is presented as a paradigm for the globalization of the United States. It is concluded that ethnic minority psychology has changed the field and equips us for the challenges of the internationalization of the world.

Reflections on ethnic minority psychology: learning from our past so the present informs our future.

Commentary on progress and reflections of conversations that undergirded the advancement of ethnic minority psychology are presented by the author as a perspective of an Elder. Articles in this special issue are considered in terms of the themes that emerged from their narratives on the history of ethnic psychological associations, Division 45, the Minority Fellowship Program, and governance's response to multicultural issues within the American Psychological Association. Themes in the history of African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians are discussed in terms of the centrality of culture, history, and pride in resilience, treatment in U.S. history, representation in literature, and its implications for training, research and practice, challenges for ethnic psychological associations, and tensions in transition to a multicultural psychology movement.