EARLY DESCRIPTIONS OF VITREOUS SURGERY.

BACKGROUND: Vitreoretinal surgical techniques have evolved during the last decades because of the development and evolution of pars plana vitrectomy. The introduction of modern vitrectomy is credited to Robert Machemer (1933-2009). The aim of this review is to characterize the early developments of vitreous removal. METHODS: We used the PubMed web platform to search the terms: complications of cataract surgery, vitrectomy, vitreous body, vitreous humor, vitreous humour, vitreous tap, and vitreous transplantation. Other publications were also considered as a potential source of information when referenced in relevant articles. RESULTS: The first description of vitreous removal for treatment of eye disorders dates the 17th century; it was conducted by a Dutch surgeon Anton Nuck (1650-1692) in a case of hydrophthalmia. In English literature, the first description of vitrectomy is attributed to the American surgeon John Collins Warren (1778-1856). This method was implemented in the spontaneous dislocation of the crystalline lens. As the fibrillar structure of the vitreous once destroyed could not be regenerated, the researchers aimed to restore the chemical composition of the vitreous. For several decades, vitreous transplantation was performed for the treatment of vitreous hemorrhages and retinal detachment. CONCLUSION: Although the achievements of vitreoretinal surgery preceding Machemer's inventions are uncommonly reported, they have contributed to the concept and understanding of the treatment modalities.

Albrecht von Graefe (1828-1870) and his contributions to the development of ophthalmology.

PURPOSE: The aim of this article is to show Albrecht von Graefe's contributions to the development of ophthalmology on the occasion of the 150th anniversary of his death. He is regarded as the greatest ophthalmologist of the 19th century. Modern and scientific ophthalmology owes its beginning to him. METHODS: Extensive literature research is made and contacts with institutions for history of medicine as well as medico-historians in the field of ophthalmology. RESULTS: His contributions to ophthalmology were multiple. Von Graefe was the first to introduce iridectomy in acute glaucoma treatment, initiated visual field testing and developed the first tonometer. He made the first classification of glaucoma. Von Graefe was the ophthalmologist who created a special knife for cataract surgery. He was also the first to use Helmholtz' ophthalmoscope. He founded the first ophthalmological society in the world and the second ophthalmology journal which has been published continously up to now. In 1852 he founded famous private eye clinic in Berlin, where he treated many eye patients and educated many prominent ophthalmologists. At the age of 29 he became associate professor of ophthalmology, the first with such a title in Germany. CONCLUSION: Albrecht von Graefe was founder of modern ophthalmology and separated it from surgery. Graefe's contacts, correspondency and meetings at ophthalmological congresses with his teachers, assistants, collegaues also contributed to international co-operation and internationalization in ophthalmology. Although Albrecht von Graefe died before 150 years, he still provokes great admiration and respect in the world of ophthalmology.

[To the history of ophthalmology clinic at the Moscow University]. / K istorii sozdaniya oftal'mologicheskoi kliniki Moskovskogo universiteta.

This is the first time the process of organizing the Clinic of Eye Diseases at the Moscow University has been traced and systematized basing on archival documents and publications - from rendering three beds for ophthalmology patients within the surgical clinic in 1805 to the establishment of a separate department of ophthalmology and subsequent foundation of the Hospital Eye Clinic in the Devich'e pole (Virgin's field) district in 1892.

François Pourfour du Petit (1664-1741): pioneer in ocular biometry.

PURPOSE: To outline the important contributions of the French physician Petit to the development of ocular biometry. CONTENT: After a brief review of Petit's life and his studies in neurology, anatomy, and cataract surgery, the methodology and results of his work in measuring many of the biometric parameters of the human eye are discussed. Among other techniques, he made use of frozen sections of eyes to explore their dimensions and employed an immersion technique to avoid the effect of corneal refraction on the appearance of the iris. His pioneering biometric results have been largely confirmed by modern studies. Those on the changes in the crystalline lens with age are particularly striking and suggest that these ocular aging effects have changed little over the last 300 years. Although largely forgotten today, his biometric work exercised a considerable influence on his more immediate successors, including Porterfield and Thomas Young. SUMMARY: François Pourfour du Petit deserves to be remembered as an important contributor to our understanding of the structure and dimensions of the human eye.

Rembrandt's Ocular Pathologies.

PURPOSE: This article aims to medically and artistically analyze various ophthalmological ailments documented in self-portraits of Rembrandt to determine if those ailments were medical conditions or stylistic and age-related changes. METHODS: A systematic literature review using Pub Med and Google Scholar found 232 results from a search of "Rembrandt" and more than 5,000 results for "Rembrandt Aging." After extensive review of the literature, the authors found 17 relevant sources. These sources were then supplemented with historical books on Rembrandt and the aging processes of artists. Analytical observations with proportional measurements of anthropometrical landmarks (from self-portraits of Rembrandt at various ages) were studied, measured, analyzed, and compared using a standardized technique via MB ruler graphic software to assess age- or medically related changes. RESULTS: The ophthalmological problems cited in the literature related to Rembrandt's periorbital structures were found by the authors to be false. Signs of inappropriate aging and ailments, such as hyperthyroidism were deemed inaccurate by the authors based on absence of classical disease progression. Ophthalmological problems cited in the literature on Rembrandt's visual acuity were found to be stylistic changes or considered normal aging. Finally, the authors found that ophthalmological problems relating to Rembrandt's eye and orbital adnexa are unfitting because these problems were not seen in subsequent paintings. CONCLUSIONS: The authors believe that all the physical changes seen in Rembrandt's portraits represent natural age-related or stylistic changes, and do not represent signs or symptoms of diseases in the master.

[Józef Talko (1838-1907)--the ophthalmology pioneer in Lublin]. / Józef Talko (1838-1907)--pionier okulistyki w Lublinie.

Józef Talko (1838-1907), a Polish military ophthalmologist. He studied medicine at St. Vladimir University in Kiev, where in 1861 he was awarded with the Doctor of Medicine title. In 1871 he became the head of the Department of Ophthalmology in Lublin, and since 1876 he worked as an ophthalmologist in Warsaw Military District. J6zef Talko wrote over 200 research papers published in Polish, Russian, German and French, where he addressed such issues as neuro-ophthalmology, diagnosis and treatment of cataract, developmental disorders of the eye, retinal detachment, and infectious eye diseases in soldiers. He was also interested in the history of ophthalmology.

[New data on the contribution of F. Hiltebrandt to the establishment and development of ophthalmology at the Imperial Moscow University].

The article provides F. Hiltebrandt's biography and analyzes his contribution to the establishment of ophthalmology service at the Imperial Moscow University and its further development.

[Calamine in the ophthalmic external treatment prescription in ancient times].

Calamine and its related medicines came into China as articles of tribute from other countries in ancient times. It was not recorded in the books of Chinese materia medica before the Song Dynasty but was widely used in ophthalmology, dermatology and traumatology and was, recorded specifically in the Ming and Qing Dynasty. This paper systematically examines the evolution of calamine herb in the archives of traditional Chinese medicine in terms of ophthalmic eternal treatment prescriptions. It was found that a total of 320 ophthalmic treatment formulas or prescriptions involved calamine, mainly finding its expression in 67 books on herbal medicines, formula and prescriptions, clinical syndrome comprehension and ophthalmic monographs. It was also found that calamine, as an important ophthalmic external medicine, had a wide range of clinical applications, covering internal and external obstructive eye diseases. Its flexibility, diverse compatibility and use in various processing are of great value and significance for in-depth exploration of its current application, its further use in ophthalmic treatment formulas or prescriptions and the redevelopment of classic formulas and prescriptions as well.

[Professor Stanislaw Mondelski--the prominent ophthalmologist in Poznan. In the twentieth anniversary of the death]. / Profesor Stanislaw Mondelski--wybitny okulista poznanski. W dwudziesta rocznice smierci.

Stanislaw Mondelski was born the 21.01.1914 in Tarnow. He graduated the University of Medical Siences in 1948. He became the professor of the Ophtalmology Departament of the University of Medical Siences in Poznan in 1983. He was the author of above 100 scientific works. The subject matter of works concerned of the diagnosis and the treatment of the illnesses of retina, the oculistic oncology, improving the diagnostic methods and the operating techniques, the relationship between the eyes iseases and the general condition of the human organism, the treatment of glaucoma. Beyond the scientific and didactic activity, he dedicated many attentions to improving and constructing the investigative and healing apparatus. Professor Stanislaw Mondelski died in 1992 in Poznan.

[Interesting life father's of Polish ophthalmology--Wiktor Feliks Szokalski (1811-1891)--in 200 years anniversary of his birth]. / Ciekawe zycie ojca polskiej okulistyki Wiktora Feliksa Szokalskiego (1811-1891)--w dwustulecie urodzin.

Victor Szokalski is considered to be the father of Polish ophthalmology. He was born in Warsaw in 1811, where he also began his medical studies. He fought in the November's Uprising. He was awarded the Military Cross Virtuti. After its fall he went to Germany, where he continued his studies. In 1834 he defended his doctoral thesis. Then he moved to France, where worked at the Eye Clinic of Jules Sichel. He wrote many articles for medical journals and taught students. Already in Paris he acted in a number of social societies, collaborated with Prince Adam Czartoryski, was a friend of Adam Mickiewicz. Fifteen years later he returned to Warsaw, where became a consultant, then the chief at the Ophthalmic Institute. For 33 years he has served as secretary of the Warsaw Medical Society. He wrote the first Polish original textbook of ophthalmology. He died in Warsaw in 1891.

The eyes of the angel of death: Ophthalmic experiments of Josef Mengele.

The infamous Schutzstaffel doctor Josef Mengele was known as the Angel of Death for choosing and condemning Jews, gypsies, and other prisoners to the gas chambers at the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp. Less known was his active participation in ophthalmic research with equal disregard for life and ethical principles. Mengele was not an ophthalmologist, but he worked in close collaboration and complicity with two genetic researchers at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, Karin Magnussen and Otmar Von Verschuer. The objective of the eye color protocol was to demonstrate hereditary differences in iris structure determined by race and ostensibly to "cure" heterochromia. Mengele sent heterochromous Gypsy eyes to Magnussen, extracted from the bodies of inmates who died (or he killed). Mengele injected adrenaline into children's eyes in an attempt to change eye color and to study environmental influences. Mengele was undoubtedly influenced to conduct these human experiments by his great ambition to publish to obtain academic promotion. These ophthalmologic experiments not only solidify Mengele's reputation as an angel of death but also show the symbiosis that existed between the concentration camp physicians and others in the Nazi medical establishment. Ophthalmology, like all of medicine, has had its share of unethical experimentation, but none with more disregard for life and ethical principles than that of Mengele at Auschwitz.

The Use of Electrotherapeutics in Ophthalmology.

PURPOSE: To present a perspective on the use of electrotherapeutics in the history of ophthalmology along with the development of novel contemporary ophthalmic instrumentation. DESIGN: Perspective study. METHODS: We reviewed historical journals, articles, and books discussing the use of electricity and electrotherapeutics in ophthalmology. RESULTS: Electrotherapeutic applications have been researched and used to treat ocular diseases as far back as the 18th century. By the 20th century, research in electrotherapeutics in ophthalmology had caught the eye of Edward Jackson, the first president of the American Academy of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology and first editor of the present (third) series American Journal of Ophthalmology. Edward Jackson published an extensive review on this topic and reported a variety of modalities used to treat ocular diseases. CONCLUSIONS: While many early therapeutic uses of electricity did not produce effective and replicable results, studies on electrical stimulation of the eye provided the foundation for the development of clinically significant vision enhancing and restoring instrumentation.