A basal ganglia circuit for evaluating action outcomes.

The basal ganglia, a group of subcortical nuclei, play a crucial role in decision-making by selecting actions and evaluating their outcomes. While much is known about the function of the basal ganglia circuitry in selection, how these nuclei contribute to outcome evaluation is less clear. Here we show that neurons in the habenula-projecting globus pallidus (GPh) in mice are essential for evaluating action outcomes and are regulated by a specific set of inputs from the basal ganglia. We find in a classical conditioning task that individual mouse GPh neurons bidirectionally encode whether an outcome is better or worse than expected. Mimicking these evaluation signals with optogenetic inhibition or excitation is sufficient to reinforce or discourage actions in a decision-making task. Moreover, cell-type-specific synaptic manipulations reveal that the inhibitory and excitatory inputs to the GPh are necessary for mice to appropriately evaluate positive and negative feedback, respectively. Finally, using rabies-virus-assisted monosynaptic tracing, we show that the GPh is embedded in a basal ganglia circuit wherein it receives inhibitory input from both striosomal and matrix compartments of the striatum, and excitatory input from the 'limbic' regions of the subthalamic nucleus. Our results provide evidence that information about the selection and evaluation of actions is channelled through distinct sets of basal ganglia circuits, with the GPh representing a key locus in which information of opposing valence is integrated to determine whether action outcomes are better or worse than expected.

A Central Extended Amygdala Circuit That Modulates Anxiety.

Both the amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) have been implicated in maladaptive anxiety characteristics of anxiety disorders. However, the underlying circuit and cellular mechanisms have remained elusive. Here we show that mice with Erbb4 gene deficiency in somatostatin-expressing (SOM+) neurons exhibit heightened anxiety as measured in the elevated plus maze test and the open field test, two assays commonly used to assess anxiety-related behaviors in rodents. Using a combination of electrophysiological, molecular, genetic, and pharmacological techniques, we demonstrate that the abnormal anxiety in the mutant mice is caused by enhanced excitatory synaptic inputs onto SOM+ neurons in the central amygdala (CeA), and the resulting reduction in inhibition onto downstream SOM+ neurons in the BNST. Notably, our results indicate that an increase in dynorphin signaling in SOM+ CeA neurons mediates the paradoxical reduction in inhibition onto SOM+ BNST neurons, and that the consequent enhanced activity of SOM+ BNST neurons is both necessary for and sufficient to drive the elevated anxiety. Finally, we show that the elevated anxiety and the associated synaptic dysfunctions and increased dynorphin signaling in the CeA-BNST circuit of the Erbb4 mutant mice can be recapitulated by stress in wild-type mice. Together, our results unravel previously unknown circuit and cellular processes in the central extended amygdala that can cause maladaptive anxiety.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The central extended amygdala has been implicated in anxiety-related behaviors, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Here we found that somatostatin-expressing neurons in the central amygdala (CeA) controls anxiety through modulation of the stria terminalis, a process that is mediated by an increase in dynorphin signaling in the CeA. Our results reveal circuit and cellular dysfunctions that may account for maladaptive anxiety.

Transforming growth factor beta promotes neuronal cell fate of mouse cortical and hippocampal progenitors in vitro and in vivo: identification of Nedd9 as an essential signaling component.

Transforming Growth Factor beta (Tgfbeta) and associated signaling effectors are expressed in the forebrain, but little is known about the role of this multifunctional cytokine during forebrain development. Using hippocampal and cortical primary cell cultures of developing mouse brains, this study identified Tgfbeta-regulated genes not only associated with cell cycle exit of progenitors but also with adoption of neuronal cell fate. Accordingly, we observed not only an antimitotic effect of Tgfbeta on progenitors but also an increased expression of neuronal markers in Tgfbeta treated cultures. This effect was dependent upon Smad4. Furthermore, in vivo loss-of-function analyses using Tgfbeta2(-/-)/Tgfbeta3(-/-) double mutant mice showed the opposite effect of increased cell proliferation and fewer neurons in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Gata2, Runx1, and Nedd9 were candidate genes regulated by Tgfbeta and known to be involved in developmental processes of neuronal progenitors. Using siRNA-mediated knockdown, we identified Nedd9 as an essential signaling component for the Tgfbeta-dependent increase in neuronal cell fate. Expression of this scaffolding protein, which is mainly described as a signaling molecule of the beta1-integrin pathway, was not only induced after Tgfbeta treatment but was also associated with morphological changes of the Nestin-positive progenitor pool observed upon exposure to Tgfbeta.

Sex-Specific Stress-Related Behavioral Phenotypes and Central Amygdala Dysfunction in a Mouse Model of 16p11.2 Microdeletion.

Background: Substantial evidence indicates that a microdeletion on human chromosome 16p11.2 is linked to neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Carriers of this deletion show divergent symptoms besides the core features of autism spectrum disorder, such as anxiety and emotional symptoms. The neural mechanisms underlying these symptoms are poorly understood. Methods: We used mice heterozygous for a deletion allele of the genomic region corresponding to the human 16p11.2 microdeletion locus (i.e., 16p11.2 del/+ mice) and their sex-matched wild-type littermates for the study and examined their anxiety-related behaviors, auditory perception, and central amygdala circuit function using behavioral, circuit tracing, and electrophysiological techniques. Results: Mice heterozygous for a deletion allele of the genomic region corresponding to the human 16p11.2 microdeletion locus (i.e., 16p11.2 del/+ mice) had sex-specific anxiety-related behavioral and neural circuit changes. Specifically, we found that female, but not male, 16p11.2 del/+ mice showed enhanced fear generalization-a hallmark of anxiety disorders-after auditory fear conditioning and displayed increased anxiety-like behaviors after physical restraint stress. Notably, such sex-specific behavioral changes were paralleled by an increase in activity in central amygdala neurons projecting to the globus pallidus in female, but not male, 16p11.2 del/+ mice. Conclusions: Together, these results reveal female-specific anxiety phenotypes related to 16p11.2 microdeletion syndrome and a potential underlying neural circuit mechanism. Our study therefore identifies previously underappreciated sex-specific behavioral and neural changes in a genetic model of 16p11.2 microdeletion syndrome and highlights the importance of investigating female-specific aspects of this syndrome for targeted treatment strategies.

Opposing Contributions of GABAergic and Glutamatergic Ventral Pallidal Neurons to Motivational Behaviors.

The ventral pallidum (VP) is critical for invigorating reward seeking and is also involved in punishment avoidance, but how it contributes to such opposing behavioral actions remains unclear. Here, we show that GABAergic and glutamatergic VP neurons selectively control behavior in opposing motivational contexts. In vivo recording combined with optogenetics in mice revealed that these two populations oppositely encode positive and negative motivational value, are differentially modulated by animal's internal state, and determine the behavioral response during motivational conflict. Furthermore, GABAergic VP neurons are essential for movements toward reward in a positive motivational context but suppress movements in an aversive context. In contrast, glutamatergic VP neurons are essential for movements to avoid a threat but suppress movements in an appetitive context. Our results indicate that GABAergic and glutamatergic VP neurons encode the drive for approach and avoidance, respectively, with the balance between their activities determining the type of motivational behavior.

The central amygdala controls learning in the lateral amygdala.

Experience-driven synaptic plasticity in the lateral amygdala is thought to underlie the formation of associations between sensory stimuli and an ensuing threat. However, how the central amygdala participates in such a learning process remains unclear. Here we show that PKC-δ-expressing central amygdala neurons are essential for the synaptic plasticity underlying learning in the lateral amygdala, as they convey information about the unconditioned stimulus to lateral amygdala neurons during fear conditioning.

ErbB4 regulation of a thalamic reticular nucleus circuit for sensory selection.

Selective processing of behaviorally relevant sensory inputs against irrelevant ones is a fundamental cognitive function whose impairment has been implicated in major psychiatric disorders. It is known that the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) gates sensory information en route to the cortex, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here we show in mice that deficiency of the Erbb4 gene in somatostatin-expressing TRN neurons markedly alters behaviors that are dependent on sensory selection. Whereas the performance of the Erbb4-deficient mice in identifying targets from distractors was improved, their ability to switch attention between conflicting sensory cues was impaired. These behavioral changes were mediated by an enhanced cortical drive onto the TRN that promotes the TRN-mediated cortical feedback inhibition of thalamic neurons. Our results uncover a previously unknown role of ErbB4 in regulating cortico-TRN-thalamic circuit function. We propose that ErbB4 sets the sensitivity of the TRN to cortical inputs at levels that can support sensory selection while allowing behavioral flexibility.