Praxagoras of Cos (4th Century BC) and His Innovative Method of a Diverting Enterocutaneous Fistula to Relieve Small Bowel Obstruction.

Born in an island with huge medical tradition in ancient Greece, Praxagoras of Cos became an esteemed medico-philosopher and surgeon. The evolution made by the Hippocratic School of Medicine further boosted his talent and helped him perform surgical operations, which were believed impossible for his era. Praxagoras introduced an innovative surgical technique to confront small bowel obstruction, by creating an enterocutaneous fistula. This historical review connects all available data to present the life and work of an important medical figure of the ancient Hellenic School.

Constantinos Michael (1751-1816): 19th Century Doctor and Medical Philosopher.

Objectives: During the 18th and 19th centuries, many books about science were published. Constantinos Michael (1751-1816), the first medical historian to write in Greek, contributed to this literature. Born in Kastoria, Greece, Constantinos Michael lived and studied medicine and philosophy in Vienna. His book Dietetics describes how lifestyle and diet can benefit or harm human health. Though not well known, Constantinos Michael made substantial contributions to medical scholarship and the promotion of Greek history and Hellenic culture, as described in this study. This is the first such study of Constantinos Michael and his medical treatise, Dietetics.

Mathieu Joseph Bonaventure Orfila (1787-1853): The Founder of Modern Toxicology.

Mateu Joseph Bonaventura Orfila i Rotger was a prominent Spanish chemist and scholar of the 19th century whose experimental work has enormously contributed to the progress of toxicology. Being a pioneer with his research on the effects of toxins and antidotes on live animals, he established basic principles of modern medicine and pharmacology. Orfila improved the accuracy of several chemical techniques such as the Marsh test. He served as an expert and well-known scientific investigator in important legal trials involving alleged poisonings with arsenic and other chemical substances. In 1840, he was asked to investigate the notorious case of Charles Lafarge's death, whose wife had been accused with murder by poisoning his food with arsenic. After four failed chemical analyses, Orfila was finally able to detect arsenic in the victim's body, leading the court to convict Madame Lafarge. Due to his overall contribution to the field, Orfila is considered the father of modern toxicology.

The Manchurian pandemic of pneumonic plague (1910-1911).

China's winter of 1910-1911 was one of its most difficult. A deadly airborne pneumonic plague, believed to have originated from tarbagan marmots, broke out in October 1910 in a northeastern Chinese province commonly known by the exonym Manchuria. The disease had a near 100 percent mortality rate, affecting mainly the lower socio-economic classes and eventually killing more than 60,000 people over six months. By April 1911, the epidemic was suppressed, in large part due to the efforts of a Western-educated Chinese physician, Wu Lian-Teh. Similar to the recent COVID-19 pandemic, the Great Manchurian Plague outbreak highlighted the importance of personal protective equipment, such as face masks, and a quick and efficient international medical response.

Theophrastus Bombastus Von Hohenheim (Paracelsus) (1493-1541): The eminent physician and pioneer of toxicology.

Theophrastus Bombastus Von Hohenheim known as Paracelsus was a German-Swiss homo universalis, or Renaissance man, whose interests included medicine, chemistry and toxicology. Characterized as a rebellious and great reformer of established medicine of his era, Paracelsus preferred observing nature, over studying ancient texts to find appropriate treatments for various diseases. He also used unconventional curative methods, such as minerals and other inorganic substances, which caused much controversy among his contemporaries. The main purpose of this article is to highlight his contribution on toxicology and the use of mercury.

[Rob of the physician. An unequaled example of the past "secret remedy"against syphilis]. / Le rob de Laffecteur. Un exemple sans égal de "remède secret" antisyphilitique d'autrefois.

Since the 16th century syphilis treatment increased the use of mercury despite its strong toxicity. In 1764 in Paris Doctor Boyveau created the so-called rob without mercury and experimented it at the Bicêtre Hospital with the approval of the medical authorities. It was a real important success lasting till 1828, as Giradeau de Saint-Gervais took back the brand. However the suspicion of mercury in the remedy could not be proved.

[The urologic studies of Aristotle]. / A propos des conceptions urologiques d'Aristote.

Aristotle's most valuable contributions were to anatomy, zoology and biology. With his research and writings concerning urology, Aristotle contributed to the foundation of this discipline.

[Theophilus Protospatharius: Byzantine forerunner of urology]. / Théophile Protospatharios: un précurseur byzantin de l'urologie.

Theophilus Protospatharius was a physician in the court of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius (610-641). His interesting medical manuscripts have been studied by many historians, although very little is known about his life. In Byzantium it was not unusual for prominent people to have many surnames according to their work, political status etc. For his piety two surnames were given to Theophilus : Philotheus (the person who loves god) and Philaretus (Virtuous). These last surnames gave rise to confusion and historians believed that two different medical men lived in Byzantium during the seventh century. Theophilus and Philaretus. This probably was the result of an error in the copies of ancient codes and erroneous translations to the old Latin manuscripts. These errors have been corrected after the studies of Corlieu who stated in 1885 that Theophilus and Philaretus were the same person. The written work left by Theophilus is very extensive. He continued the work of famous physicians of the Hellenistic period and contributed by his writings to the flourishing of the Medical School of Salerno which was founded on the 9th century D.C. Theophilus could be considered as one of the original forerunners of modern Urology.

[Guy Crescent Fagon (1638-1718), first doctor of Louis XIV cut for the stone by George Mareschal (1658-1736)]. / Guy Crescent Fagon (1638-1718), premier médecin de Louis XIV, taillé par Georges Mareschal (1658-1736).

In this paper we sketch the portrait of Professor Guy Crescent Fagon, first doctor of Louis XIV placing emphasis to his vesical stone and to his lithotomy by the first surgeon of the King, George Mareschal.

[François Raspail (1794-1878): a great popularizer of medicine and his original points of view in urology]. / François Raspail (1794-1878): un grand vulgarisateur de la médecine et ses points de vues urologiques originaux.

Raspail was a great scholar and politician. His works are connected with very different areas such as journalism, agriculture, meteorology, mineralogy, geology, botany, chemistry, biology and medicine. In his works, urology fills a significant place and deserves to be reported for its medical originality and nonconformism.

[The beneficial effect of mineral waters of Fiuggi on Pope Bonifacio VIII and Michelangelo: two prominent calculous patients]. / L'action bénéfique des eaux minérales de Fiuggi sur deux malades calculeux illustres: le pape Boniface VIII (1235-1303) et Michel Ange Buonarroti (1475-1564).

Going back to the dawn of time, we deal with two historical figures, that of Pope Bonifacio VIII, and that of the hierophant of art, Michelangelo Buonarroti. The texts and the codes of the British Museum (Department of Manuscripts), of the Biblioteca Medica Laurenziana (Archivio Buonarroti) of Florence, and the Biblioteca Apostolica of Vatican, convincing detalled evidence that both figures were urological patients. It concerns two clinical cases with especially pertain to the history of lithiasis of urinary tract. Even though, both of them--the first with nephrolithiasis or gravel, and the second with a bladder stone--were historically bound with the well-known cures of Fiuggi in Italy.

[Victor Rochet (1860-1934), founder of Lyons' Urology and his contribution to surgical treatment of hypospadias]. / Victor Rochet (1860-1934), fondateur de l'urologie lyonnaise et son apport a la cure chirurgicale de l'hypospadias.

Through this article we present the scientific portrait of Victor Rochet, founder of Lyons' Urology, and we emphasize on his two procedures of hypospadias' surgical treatment.

[The urology in the anatomical plates of Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)]. / L'urologie dans les planches anatomiques d'André Vésale (1514-1564).

Perspicacious and methodical as much as genius, Vesalius was the greatest anatomist of all time. He created the anatomical nomenclature of organs used even today. He elaborated more than 300 remarkable anatomical illustrations, a part of which is dedicated to the male urogenital tract, providing in this way precious information about the knowledge on urology of his time.

[Urology in the work De re medica of Aulus-Cornelius Celsus (1st c. A.D.)]. / L'urologie dans l'oeuvre De re medica d'Aulus-Cornelius Celsus (1er siècle apriès J.C.).

The great surgical and urologic attainments of the Greek-Roman period (since Hippocrates until August's century) are preserved to us thanks to the work De re medica of Celsus of which they constitute the source. Through this paper we present the master points of Celsus' urologic work.

[Contribution of Etienne-Frederic Bouisson (1813-1884) to the surgical treatment of hypospadias]. / Etienne-Frédéric Bouisson (1813-1884) et le traitement chirurgical de l'hypospadias.

Professor Bouisson was a great surgeon and benefactor of medicine. He exercised successfully the functions of dean, rector and deputy. A great part of his surgical work deal with pediatric urology. Bouisson's dissertation on surgical treatment of hypospadias constitute a crucial turning-point in the history of treatment of this malformation.

[The lithiasis of urinary tract and its treatment by Ambroise Paré (1509-1590)]. / La lithiase urinaire et son traitement par Ambroise Paré (1509-1590).

Ambroise Paré, founder of surgery, by his research and books concerning urology, made an enormous contribution to the foundation of this discipline. The treatment of urinary tract's lithiasis in the Works of Paré.

[Louis Ombrédanne (1871-1956) and the cure for hypospadias]. / Louis Ombrédanne (1871-1956) et la cure de l'hypospadias.

Ombrédanne was one of the founders of paediatric surgery. He was the inventor of surgery technics. His methods used in infantile urology became classics, such as hypospadias' operation.

[Pierre Franco (1505-1578): famous surgeon and lithotomist of the 16th century]. / Pierre Franco, chirurgien et lithotomiste du 16è siècle.

Pierre Franco, creator of suprapubic lithotomy cataract operation and surgical repair of hernia with preservation of the testis, is considered to be one of the greatest surgeons of the Renaissance and a forerunner of urology.

[Alexis Boyer (1760-1833), eminent surgeon and anatomist and the study of urinary disorders]. / Alexis Boyer (1760-1833), éminent chirurgien et anatomiste et l'étude des troubles mictionnels.

Alexis Boyer, professor of clinical surgery at La Charité, first surgeon of Napoleon, baron of the Empire, left considerable written works covering the whole of external pathology. A great part of his works deals with urological affections, especially with micturition's disorders, in which one can appreciate the astonishingly high level of Boyer's knowledge on this matter, a knowledge which constitutes the germ of urodynamics.

[François Gigot de La Peyronie(1678-1747), benefactor of surgery and supporter of the fusion of medicine and surgery, and the disease that bears his name]. / François Gigot de Lapeyronie (1678-1747), bienfaiteur de la chirurgie et promoteur de la fusion médecine-chirurgie, et la maladie qui porte son nom.

François Gigot de La Peyronie, first surgeon to Louis XV, definitively distinguished surgeons from the company of barbers and, by giving them a charter, placed them on an equal footing with physicians. The creation of Académie Royale de Chirurgie, in 1731, that LAPEYRONIE, presided for 11 years, put an end to the intolerable supremacy of medicine over surgery and contributed to the promotion of surgery. In 1743, he was the first to give a valid description of the disease that bears his name.